Archaeological Perspective on the Impacts of Caravan Trade Expansion in East Africa: Emerging Alternative Histories
Corresponding Author(s) : Thomas J. Biginagwa
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
##issue.vol## 9 ##issue.no## 3 (2021)
##article.abstract##
The last two decades have witnessed an increase of archaeological research interest in the
East African caravan trade, a topic that was traditionally exclusive to historians. Long-term
empirical evidence currently generated by archaeologists continues to consolidate our
understanding of the caravan trade, and helps to question some inferences previously
drawn from colonial libraries. This paper presents archaeological evidence unearthed from
the Northern and Southern caravan routes located in the corresponding areas in the
contemporary northern and southern Tanzania. The paper engages material evidence to
re-examine some of the consequences of the caravan trade commonly reported in
historical writings. Doing so, the paper demonstrates the utility of considering material
culture records in studying and re-writing Africa’s recent past.
##submission.howToCite.downloadCitation##
##plugins.generic.citationStyleLanguage.download.ris####plugins.generic.citationStyleLanguage.download.bibtex##
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- Animal and Its Ivory in African Culture (Pp. 349–360). Los Angeles: University of California.
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- (Eds.), Handbook of Archaeological Theories. Lanham: Altamira, pp. 487–513.
- Beidelman, T. O. 1982. The Organization and Maintenance of Caravans by the Church Missionary
- Society in Tanzania in the Nineteenth Century. International Journal of African Historical
- Studies, 15(4): 601-623.
- Baumann, O. 1891. Usambara and Seine Nachbargebiete. Berlin: D. Reimer.
- Beachey, R. W. 1967. The East African Ivory Trade in the Nineteenth Century. Journal of African
- History, VIII(2): 269?290. DOI: Https://Doi.Org/10.1017/S0021853700007052
- Biginagwa, T. J. 2012. Historical Archaeology of the 19th Century Caravan Trade in North? Eastern
- Tanzania: a Zooarchaeological Perspective. PhD Thesis. York: University of York.
- —. 2014. Historical Archaeology in East Africa. In C. Smith (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology,
- New York: Springer, 2265–73.
- —. 2015. Archaeological Investigation at Kilwa Kivinje: a 19th Century Coastal Caravan Terminus in
- Southern Tanzania. Studies in the African Past, 12: 60–97.
- Biginagwa, T. J & E. B. Ichumbaki 2018. Settlement History of the Islands on the Pangani River,
- North-Eastern Tanzania. Azania 53: 63–82.
- Biginagwa, T. J., E. B. Ichumbaki & B. B. Mapunda. (In Press). Multi-Directional Connectivity in
- Eastern and Southern Africa During the First and Early–Second Millennia AD: Archaeological
- Evidence from Lupilo, Southern Tanzania. Journal of African Archaeology.
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- and the Sources of the White Nile. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 29: 1?454.
- Burton, R. F. & J. H. Speke. 1858. A Coasting Voyage from Mombasa to the Pangani River; Visit to
- Sultan Kimwere; and Progress of the Expedition into the Interior. Journal of the Royal Geographical
- Society of London, 28: 188–226.
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- Societies Archaeology Uppsaliensis.
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- Caravan-Serai. Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam University Press.
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- Sixteenth Century. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 5(3): 424–435. https://
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- Indian Ocean Rim Regions, AD 700 To 1700. African Archaeological Review 31(4):705?724. https://
- www.jstor.org/stable/43916712
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- East African Ivory Trade: A Bioarchaeological Study. PhD thesis. York: University of York.
- Coutu, A.N., J. Lee-Thorp, M. Collins & P.J. Lane. 2016. Mapping the Elephants of the 19th Century
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- thesis. Manchester: University of Manchester.
- —. 2011. Exchange Values: Commodities, Colonialism & Identity on Nineteenth Century Zanzibar.
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- /S0021853700025731.
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- Trade. Human Ecology, 32 (5): 561?591. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4603539.
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- Perspectives on Landscape Transformation in North-Eastern Tanzania, 1850–2000. International
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- Heckmann, M., V. Muiruri, A. Boom, & R. Marchant. 2014. Human–Environment Interactions in an
- Agricultural Landscape: a 1400-Yr Sediment and Pollen Record from North Pare, NE
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- Horton, M. 1996. Shanga: The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa.
- London: BIEA.
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- of the Royal Geographical Society of London 1(9): 545?558.
- Katto, P. 2016. Coast-Interior Connectivity During the Nineteenth Century: Archaeological Evidence of the Caravan
- Trade from Southern Tanzania. M.A. Dissertation. Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam.
- Karklins, K. 1992. Identifying Beads Used in the 19th Century Central East Africa Trade. Journal of the
- Society of Bead Researchers, 4: 49–59.
- Kimambo, I. N. 1996. Environmental Control and Hunger in the Mountains and Plains of Nineteenth
- Century North-Eastern Tanzania. In G. H. Maddox, J. L. Giblin & I. N. Kimambo (Eds.), Custodians
- of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania. London: James Currey, 71–95.
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##journal.references##
Alpers, E. A. 1992. The Ivory Trade in Africa: an Historical Overview. In D. Ross (Ed.), Elephant: The
Animal and Its Ivory in African Culture (Pp. 349–360). Los Angeles: University of California.
Ames, K. M. 2007. The Archaeology of Rank. In R. A. Bentley, H. D. G. Maschner & C. Chippindale
(Eds.), Handbook of Archaeological Theories. Lanham: Altamira, pp. 487–513.
Beidelman, T. O. 1982. The Organization and Maintenance of Caravans by the Church Missionary
Society in Tanzania in the Nineteenth Century. International Journal of African Historical
Studies, 15(4): 601-623.
Baumann, O. 1891. Usambara and Seine Nachbargebiete. Berlin: D. Reimer.
Beachey, R. W. 1967. The East African Ivory Trade in the Nineteenth Century. Journal of African
History, VIII(2): 269?290. DOI: Https://Doi.Org/10.1017/S0021853700007052
Biginagwa, T. J. 2012. Historical Archaeology of the 19th Century Caravan Trade in North? Eastern
Tanzania: a Zooarchaeological Perspective. PhD Thesis. York: University of York.
—. 2014. Historical Archaeology in East Africa. In C. Smith (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology,
New York: Springer, 2265–73.
—. 2015. Archaeological Investigation at Kilwa Kivinje: a 19th Century Coastal Caravan Terminus in
Southern Tanzania. Studies in the African Past, 12: 60–97.
Biginagwa, T. J & E. B. Ichumbaki 2018. Settlement History of the Islands on the Pangani River,
North-Eastern Tanzania. Azania 53: 63–82.
Biginagwa, T. J., E. B. Ichumbaki & B. B. Mapunda. (In Press). Multi-Directional Connectivity in
Eastern and Southern Africa During the First and Early–Second Millennia AD: Archaeological
Evidence from Lupilo, Southern Tanzania. Journal of African Archaeology.
Burton, R. 1872. Zanzibar: City, Island & Coast, 2 Vols. London: Tinsley.
Burton, R. F. 1859. The Lake Regions of Central Equatorial Africa With Notes of the Lunar Mountains
and the Sources of the White Nile. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 29: 1?454.
Burton, R. F. & J. H. Speke. 1858. A Coasting Voyage from Mombasa to the Pangani River; Visit to
Sultan Kimwere; and Progress of the Expedition into the Interior. Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society of London, 28: 188–226.
Chami, F. A. 1994. Tanzania Coast in the First Millennium AD, Studies in the African Past. Uppsala:
Societies Archaeology Uppsaliensis.
Chami, F. A., E. Maro, J. Kessy & S. Odunga. 2004. Historical Archaeology of Bagamoyo: Excavations at
Caravan-Serai. Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam University Press.
Chanaiwa, D. 1972. Politics and Long-Distance Trade in the Mwene Mutapa Empire During the
Sixteenth Century. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 5(3): 424–435. https://
www.jstor.org/stable/217093.
Chittick, N. H. 1966. Six Early Coins from Near Tanga. Azania 1:1?36. https://doi.org/ 10. 1080/
—. 1974. Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast: The Finds 1 & 2. Nairobi: BIEA.
Chirikure, S. 2014. Land and Sea Links: 1500 Years of Connectivity Between Southern Africa and the
Indian Ocean Rim Regions, AD 700 To 1700. African Archaeological Review 31(4):705?724. https://
www.jstor.org/stable/43916712
Christie, J. 1876. Cholera Epidemics in East Africa. London: Macmillan.
Coutu, A. N. 2011. Tracing the Links Between Elephants, Humans & Landscapes During the 19th Century
East African Ivory Trade: A Bioarchaeological Study. PhD thesis. York: University of York.
Coutu, A.N., J. Lee-Thorp, M. Collins & P.J. Lane. 2016. Mapping the Elephants of the 19th Century
East African Ivory Trade with a Multi-Isotope Approach. Plos One 11(10), E0163606b.
Croucher, S. K. 2006. Plantation on Zanzibar: An Archaeological Approach to Complex Identities. PhD
thesis. Manchester: University of Manchester.
—. 2011. Exchange Values: Commodities, Colonialism & Identity on Nineteenth Century Zanzibar.
In S. Croucher & L. Weiss (Eds.). The Archaeology of Capitalism in Colonial Contexts: Post-Colonial
Historical Archaeologies. New York: Springer, 65?192.
Croucher, S. K. & L. Weiss. 2011. The Archaeology of Capitalism in Colonial Contexts: Postcolonial
Historical Archaeologies. New York: Springer.
Ebner, E. 1987. The History of the Wangoni and Their Origin in the South African Bantu Tribes. Ndanda:
Benedictine Publications.
Farler, J. P. 1882. Native Routes in East Africa From Pangani To the Masai Country and Victoria
Nyanza. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 4 (12): 730?742. https://www. jstor.
org/stable/1800695.
Feierman, S. 1974. The Shambaa Kingdom: A History. Madison: University of Wisconsin.
Finch, J., R. Marchant & C. J. Mustaphi. 2017. Ecosystem Change in the South Pare Mountain Bloc,
Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania. The Holocene, 27(6): 796?810.
Flanders, J. 2006. Consuming Passions: Leisure and Pleasure in Victorian Britain. London: Harper Perennial.
Fleisher, J. B. 2003. Viewing Stone Town from the Countryside: an Archaeological Approach To Swahili
Regional Systems: AD 800–1500. PhD thesis. Virginia: University of Virginia.
Freeman?Greenville, G. S. P 1962. The East African Coast: Select Documents. Oxford: Clarendon.
Glassman, J. 1991. The Bondman’s New Clothes: The Contradictory Consciousness of Slave
Resistance on the Swahili Coast. Journal of African History, 32: 277–312. https://doi.org/10.
/S0021853700025731.
Håkansson, T. N. 2004. The Human Ecology of World Systemsin East Africa: The Impact of the Ivory
Trade. Human Ecology, 32 (5): 561?591. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4603539.
Håkansson, T. N., M. Widgren. & L. Börjeson. 2007. Introduction: Historical and Regional
Perspectives on Landscape Transformation in North-Eastern Tanzania, 1850–2000. International
Journal of African Historical Studies, 41(3): 369–382.
Hayden, B. 1995. Pathways to Power. In T. D. Price & G. M. Feinman (Eds.). Foundations of Social
Inequality. New York: Springer, pp. 15–86.
Heckmann, M. 2014. Farmers, Smelters and Caravans: Two Thousand Years of Land Use and Soil
Erosion in North Pare, NE Tanzania. Catena, 113:187–201.
Heckmann, M., V. Muiruri, A. Boom, & R. Marchant. 2014. Human–Environment Interactions in an
Agricultural Landscape: a 1400-Yr Sediment and Pollen Record from North Pare, NE
Tanzania. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 406: 49–61.
Horton, M. 1996. Shanga: The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa.
London: BIEA.
Johnston, K. 1879. Notes of a Trip from Zanzibar to Usambara in February and March 1879. Journal
of the Royal Geographical Society of London 1(9): 545?558.
Katto, P. 2016. Coast-Interior Connectivity During the Nineteenth Century: Archaeological Evidence of the Caravan
Trade from Southern Tanzania. M.A. Dissertation. Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam.
Karklins, K. 1992. Identifying Beads Used in the 19th Century Central East Africa Trade. Journal of the
Society of Bead Researchers, 4: 49–59.
Kimambo, I. N. 1996. Environmental Control and Hunger in the Mountains and Plains of Nineteenth
Century North-Eastern Tanzania. In G. H. Maddox, J. L. Giblin & I. N. Kimambo (Eds.), Custodians
of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania. London: James Currey, 71–95.
Kjekshus, H. 1996. Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History: The Case of
Tanganyika 1850–1950 (2nd Edition). Oxford: James Currey.
Koponen, J. 1988. People and Production in Late Pre-Colonial Tanzania: History and Structures. Uppsala:
Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Krapf, J. L. 1860[1968]. Travels, Researches & Missionary Labours During an Eighteen Years' Residence in
Eastern Africa (2nd Edition). Abingdon: Frank Cass & Co., Reprint.
Kusimba, C. M, 2004. Archaeology of Slavery in East Africa. The African Archaeological Review, 21:
?88. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130793.
Lane, P. J. 1992. Administrative Report on Archaeological Investigations at Kwa Fungo, Muheza District,
Tanga Region, During December 1991. Unpublished Field Report. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania:
Antiquities Department.
—. 1997. Zigua (Tanzania). Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World X, 2124–5. Cambridge:
Cambridge University.
—. 2007. Historical Archaeology: Whither Historical Archaeology in Africa? The Review of
Archaeology, 28: 1–20.
—. 2010. Developing Landscape Historical Ecologies in Eastern Africa: An Outline of Current
Research and Potential Future Direction. African Studies, 69 (2):299-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/
2010.499203.
—. 2011. Slavery and Slave Trading in Eastern Africa: Exploring the Intersections of Historical
Sources and Archaeological Evidence. Proceedings of the British Academy 168: 281–314.
Le Roy, A. 1894. Au Kilima Ndjaro. Paris: Gallimard.
Lieder, G. 1894. Beobachtungen Auf Der Ubena-Nyasa-Expedition: Mitteilungen Aus Den Deutschen
Schutzgebieten Mit Benutzung Amtlicher. Que/Len 7: 271–6.
Mapunda, B. B. 2004. East African Slave Trade: Unravelling Post-Abolition Slave Coverts in the
Interior of Southern Tanzania. Utafiti, 5(1): 61–76.
—. 2017. Encounter With an ‘Injured Buffalo: Slavery and Colonial Emancipation in Tanzania. Journal
of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage, 6(1): 1–18.
Marcus, J. 2008. The Archaeological Evidence for Social Evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology, 37:
–266. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085246.
Marshall, L.W. 2015. Marronage and the Politics of Memory: Fugitive Slaves, Interaction & Integration
in the Nineteenth-Century Kenya. In L.W. Marshall (Ed.), The Archaeology of Slavery: A Comparative
Approach to Captivity and Coercion. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 276–299.
Mjema, E. 2015. Maritime Community Settlement History in Pangani Bay, Tanga Coastal Region,
Tanzania. PhD thesis. Frankfurt: University of Frankfurt.
Moffett, J. A. & S. Chirikure. 2016. Exotica in Context: Reconfiguring Prestige, Power and Wealth in
the Southern African Iron Age. Journal of World Prehistory, 29(4): 337?382.
Mudenge, S. I. G. 1988. A Political History of Munhumutapa C 1400–1902. London: James Currey.
Mumbi, C. T., R. Marchant & P.J. Lane. 2014. Vegetation Response to Climate Change and Human
Impacts in the Usambara Mountains. International Scholarly Research Notices.
Msemwa, P. 2001. Archaeology of Upper Rufiji Catchment. Studies in the African Past, 1: 40–52.
New, C. 1875. Journey from the Pangani, Via Usambara, to Mombasa. Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society of London 45: 414–20.
Orton, C. & M. Hughes. 1993. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology – Pottery in Archaeology. Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge
Pallaver, K. 2009. A Recognized Currency in Beads: Glass Beads as Money in the19th Century East
African Central Caravan Road. In E. Catherine, H. Fuller & J. Perkins (Eds.), Money in Africa
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