Stone Monuments of Northern Lake Eyasi Basin at Olpiro, Oldogom and Olbili Sites in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania: Revisited Perspectives
Corresponding Author(s) : Musa S. Mwitondi
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
Vol. 10 No. 4 (2021)
Abstract
Despite the outstanding contribution of Lake Eyasi Basin to human origins and cultural development from the middle stone age (MSA) to the historic period, other archaeological occurrences in the area with outstanding cultural values such as burial cairns, stone enclosures, megalithic walls, and dolmens have remained less emphatic among scholars. Although these are widespread across the cultural landscape of the region, yet they have attracted little scientific attention. These stone monuments were first reported in the 1960s and 1970s, and precisely correlated to the agricultural terraces of Engaruka, the astonishing late iron age agricultural scheme of northern Tanzania. This study intended to identify new monumental sites, establish the chronological framework of human adaptation in the Lake Eyasi Basin, and provide scholarly information that can be fully understood at different levels: local people, policymakers, and scientific communities. Results from an archaeological survey at Olbili, Olpiro, and Oldogom villages in the northern edge of the Lake Eyasi Basin shows a sustained occupation of these sites from the Neolithic to iron age (IA) periods. Nevertheless, detailed archaeological, architectural, radiometric dating, and paleoecological investigations are encouraged for coherent declarations.
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- Ambrose, S. 1984a. Holocene Environments and Human Adaptations in the Central Rift Valley Kenya. Berkeley: University of California. —. 1984b. The Introduction of Pastoral Adaptations to the Highlands of East Africa. in D. J. Clark & S. A. Brandit, from Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 212–239. —. 1998. Chronology of the Later Stone Age and Food Production in East Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25: 377–392. Belmonte, J. A., C. G. García & A. Polcaro. 2013. on the Orientation of Megalithic Monuments of the Transjordan Plateau: New Clues for an Astronomical In- Interpretation. Journal for the History of Astronomy, 64: 429–55. Biittner, K., E. Sawchuk, J. Miller, J. Werner, P. Bushozi & P. Willoughby. 2017. Excavations at Mlambalasi Rockshelter: A Terminal Pleistocene to Recent Iron Age Record in Southern Tanzania. African Archaeological Review, 34(2): 275–295. Bocquetin, F., H. Khalaily, D. B.-Y. Mayer, F. Berna, R. Biton, D. Boness, et al. 2014. Renewed Excavations at Beisamoun: Investigating the 7th Millennium Cal. BC of the Southern Levant. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society, 44, 5–100. Bower, J. F. 1991. The Pastoral Neolithic of East Africa. Journal of World Prehistory, 5(1): 49–82. Braemer, F., S. Cleuziou & T. Steimer. 2003. Dolmen-Like Structures: Some Unusual Funerary Monuments in Yemen. Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 33: 169–182. Bräuer, G. & M. J. Mehlman. 1988. Hominid Molars from a Middle Stone Age Level at the Mumba Rock Shelter, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 75: 69–76. Bushozi, P. M. 2020. Middle and Later Stone Age Symbolism Stone Beads from Mumba Rock-Shelter in Northern Tanzania. UTAFITI, 15(1): 1–27. Bushozi, P. M., L. Leque & A. P. Mabulla. 2017. Geochronology and Technological Development: The Microscopic and Metric Evidence from Middle Stone Age (MSA) Points at Mumba RockShelter, Northern Tanzania. Palaeoecology of Africa, 34: 183–206. Bushozi, P. M., A. R. Skinner & L. De Luque. 2020. The Middle Stone Age (MSA) Technological Patterns, Innovations, and Behavioral Changes at Bed VIA of Mumba Rockshelter, Northern Tanzania. African Archaeological Review, 37: 293–310. Chami, F. A. & A. Kwekason. 2003. Neolithic Pottery Traditions from the Islands, the Coast and the Interior of East Africa. African Archaeological Review. 20(2): 65–80. Clack, T. & M. Brittain. 2011. Place-Making, Participative Archaeologies and Mursi Megaliths: Some Implications for Aspects of Pre-And Proto-History in the Horn of Africa. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 5(1): 85–107. Cummings, V. & C. Richards. 2014. The Essence of Dolmen: The Architecture of Megalithic Construction. Mediterranean Prehistory, Colloque, 1–17. Debertolis, P., Tarabella, N. & Marcuccetti, L. 2018. Archaeoacoustic Analysis of a Dolmen on Mount Freddone, Italy. The 6th International Virtual Conference on Advanced Scientific Results Florence, Italy: Super Brain Research Group Organization, pp. 107–114. Diez-Martín, F., M. Domínguez-Rodrigo, P. Sánchez, A. Z. Mabulla, A. Tarriño, R. Barba, et al. 2009. The Middle to Later Stone Age Technological Transition in East Africa: New Data from Mumba Rock-Shelter Bed V (Tanzania) and Their Implications for the Origin Modern Human Behavior. Journal of African Archaeology, 7(2): 147–173. Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., F. Diez-Martín, A. Mabulla, L. Luque, L. Alcala & A. Tarrino. 2007. The Archaeology of the Middle Pleistocene Deposits of Lake Eyasi (Tanzania). Journal of African Archaeology, 5(1): 47–78. Fosbrooke, H. 1950. A Proto-Historic Burial, Naberera Masai District, Tanganyika Territory. South Africa Archaeological Bulletin, 5: 105–107. Gliganic, L., Z. Jacobs, R. Roberts, M. Dominguez-Rodrigo & A. Mabulla. 2012. New Ages for Middle and Later Stone Age Deposits at Mumba Rockshelter, Tanzania: Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating of Quartz and Feldspar Grains. Journal of Human Evolution, 62: 533–547. Grillo, K. M., J. Dunne, F. Marshallc, M. E. Prendergast, E. Casanova, A. O. Gidna, et al. 2020. Molecular and Isotopic Evidence for Milk, Meat, and Plants in Prehistoric Eastern African Herder Food Systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Unit. States Am. 117: 9793–9799. Grillo, K., M. Prendergast, D. Contreras, T. Fitton, A. Gidna, S. Goldstein, et al. 2018. Pastoral Neolithic Settlement at Luxmanda, Tanzania. Journal of Field Archaeology, 43(2): 102–120. Haber, A. & T. Dayan. 2004. Analysing the Process of Domestication: Hagoshrim as a Case Study. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31: 1587–1601. Hildebrand, E., K. Grillo, E. Sawchuk, S. Pfeiffer, L. Conyers, S. Goldstein, et al. 2018. A Monumental Cemetery Built By Eastern Africa’s First Herders Near Lake Turkana, Kenya. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Unit. States Am., 115: 8942–8947. Hoskin, M. 2011. Orientations of Dolmens in Western Europe. Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, 5(S260) United Kingdom: The International Astronomical Union, pp. 116–126. Hoskin, M. & G. Higginbottom. 2002. Orientations of Dolmens of West-Central France. Archaeoastronomy, 27(XXXIII): 51–61. Ikeda, J. & S. Hayama. 1982. The Hadza and the Iraqw in Northern Tanzania: Dermatographical, Anthropological, Odontometrical and Osteological Approaches, African Study Monographs, 5: 1–26, hyperlink https: //repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2433/67986. Joukowsky, M. 1980. A Complete Manual of Field Archaeology: Tools and Techniques of Fieldwork for Archaeologists. Cambridge: Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Karega-Munene. 1996. The East African Neolithic: An Alternative View. African Archaeological Review, 13(4): 247–254. Kohl-Larsen, L. 1943. Auf Den Spuren Des Vormenschen. Stuttgart: Strecker Und Schröder. Kolev, D., L. Tsonev, A. G., Garcia & V. Koleva. 2008. The Orientation of Dolmens in Bulgaria. Proceedings of the International Conference, 29–30 October 2008. Sofia: Sofia, Publishing House St. Ivan Rilski, pp. 169–174. Lane, P. 2004. The ‘Moving Frontier’ and the Transition to Food Production in Kenya. Azania, XXXIX: 244–64. Mabulla, A. & A. Gidna. 2014. The Dawn of Human Imagination: Rock Art of North- Central Tanzania. Cradle of Humankind. II: 99–119. Museo Arqueologico Regional, Alcala De Henares. Mabulla, A. Z. 1996. Middle and Later Stone Age Land Use and Lithic Technology in the Eyasi Basin, Tanzania. Florida, USA: University of Florida. Manega, P. C. 1993. Geochronology, Geochemistry and Isotopic Study of the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites and the Ngorongoro Volcanic Highlands in Northern Tanzania. Boulder: University of Colorado. Mcbrearty, S. & A. Brooks. 2000. The Revolution That Wasn't: A New Interpretation of the Origin of Modern Behaviour. Journal of Human Evolution, 30: 452–565. Mehlman, M. J. 1989. Later Quertenary Archaeological Sequences in Northern Tanzania. Champaign: University of Illinois. Merrick, H. & F. Brown. 1984. Obsidian Sources and Patterns of Source Utilization in Kenya and Northern Tanzania: Some Initial Findings. African Archaeological Review, 2: 129–152. Miller, J. & P. Willoughby. 2014. Radiometrically Dated Ostrich Eggshell Beads from the Middle and Later Stone Age of Magubike Rockshelter, Southern Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution, 74(1): 118–122. Mutundu, K. 2010. An Ethnoarchaeological Framework for the Identification and Distinction of Late Holocene Archaeological Sites in East Africa. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 45(1): 6–23. Odner, K. 1972. Excavations at Narosura, a Stone Bowl Site in the Southern Kenya Highlands. Azania 6(1): 25–92. Pasztor, E. & C. Roslund. 1997. The Orientation of Maltese’ Dolmens’. Journal of European Archaeology Archive, 5(1): 183–189. Piccolo, S. 2013. Ancient Stones: The Dolmen Culture in Prehistoric South-Eastern Sicily. United Kingdom: Brazen Head Publishing. Prendergast, M. 2008. Forager Variability and Transitions to Food Production in Secondary Settings: Kansyore and Pastoral Neolithic Economies in East Africa. Massachusetts, PhD dissertation, Harvard University. Prendergast, M. E., L. Luque, M. Domínguez-Rodrigo, F. Diez-Martín, A. Z. Mabulla & R. Barba. 2007. New Excavations at Mumba Rockshelter, Tanzania. Journal of African Archaeology, 5(2): 217–243. Prendergast, M., K. Grillo, A. Z. Mabulla & H. Wang. 2014. New Dates for Kansyore and Pastoral Neolithic Ceramics in the Eyasi Basin, Tanzania. Journal of African Archaeology, 12(1): 89–98. Robertshaw, P. 1986. Engaruka Revisited: Excavations of 1982. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, Vol 21: 1, 1–26. Robertshaw, P. 1991. Gogo Falls. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 26: 1, 63–195, doi: 10.1080/ 00672709109511425. Roger, J. 1976. Les Dolmens Éthiopiens. In: Annales d'Ethiopie, 10: 41–52. Rosenberg, D., A. Assaf, N. Getzov & A. Gopher. 2008. Flaked Stone Discs of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods in the Southern Levant. Paléorient, 34(2): 137–151. Rubaka, C. C. 2002. Pastoral Neolithic Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in the Mang’ola Graben, Tanzania. Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam. Sassoon, H. 1966. Engaruka: Excavation During 1964. Archaeological Research in Africa, 1(1): 79–99. Sawchuk, E. A., S. Pfeiffer, C. E. Klehm, M. E. Cameron, A. C. Hill, A. Janzen, et al. 2019. The Bioarchaeology of Mid-Holocene Pastoralist Cemeteries West of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 11: 6221–6241. Seitsonen, O., E. Sonninen & P. Heikkilä. 2012. Pastoral Neolithic Studies in Northern Tanzania: An Interim Report on XRF and Stable Isotope Analyses in the Engaruka Area. NYAME AKUMA, 77: 11–23. Shimelmitz, R., R. Barkai & A. Gopher. 2004. The Geometric Kebaran Microlithic Assemblage of Ain Miri, Northern Israel. Paléorient, 0/2, 27–140. Silva, F. 2010. Cosmology and the Neolithic. A New Survey of Neolithic Dolmens in Central Portugal. Journal of Cosmology, 9: 2194–2206. Sutton, J. E. 1978. Engaruka and Its Water. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 13(1): 37–40. —. 1984. Irrigation and Soil-Conservation in African Agricultural History With a Reconsideration of the Inyanga Terracing (Zimbabwe) and Engaruka Irrigation Works (Tanzania). Journal of African History, 25(1): 25–41. —. Engaruka: An Irrigation Agricultural Community in Northern Tanzania Before the Maasai. Azania, 33: 1–37. White, T., A. Douglas, D. Berhane, G. David, R. Henry, S. Gary, et al. 2003. Pleistocene Homo Sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 423: 742–747. Willoughby, P. 2007. The Middle Stone Age in East Africa and Modern Human Origins. African Archaeological Review, 11(1): 3–20.
References
Ambrose, S. 1984a. Holocene Environments and Human Adaptations in the Central Rift Valley Kenya. Berkeley: University of California. —. 1984b. The Introduction of Pastoral Adaptations to the Highlands of East Africa. in D. J. Clark & S. A. Brandit, from Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 212–239. —. 1998. Chronology of the Later Stone Age and Food Production in East Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25: 377–392. Belmonte, J. A., C. G. García & A. Polcaro. 2013. on the Orientation of Megalithic Monuments of the Transjordan Plateau: New Clues for an Astronomical In- Interpretation. Journal for the History of Astronomy, 64: 429–55. Biittner, K., E. Sawchuk, J. Miller, J. Werner, P. Bushozi & P. Willoughby. 2017. Excavations at Mlambalasi Rockshelter: A Terminal Pleistocene to Recent Iron Age Record in Southern Tanzania. African Archaeological Review, 34(2): 275–295. Bocquetin, F., H. Khalaily, D. B.-Y. Mayer, F. Berna, R. Biton, D. Boness, et al. 2014. Renewed Excavations at Beisamoun: Investigating the 7th Millennium Cal. BC of the Southern Levant. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society, 44, 5–100. Bower, J. F. 1991. The Pastoral Neolithic of East Africa. Journal of World Prehistory, 5(1): 49–82. Braemer, F., S. Cleuziou & T. Steimer. 2003. Dolmen-Like Structures: Some Unusual Funerary Monuments in Yemen. Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 33: 169–182. Bräuer, G. & M. J. Mehlman. 1988. Hominid Molars from a Middle Stone Age Level at the Mumba Rock Shelter, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 75: 69–76. Bushozi, P. M. 2020. Middle and Later Stone Age Symbolism Stone Beads from Mumba Rock-Shelter in Northern Tanzania. UTAFITI, 15(1): 1–27. Bushozi, P. M., L. Leque & A. P. Mabulla. 2017. Geochronology and Technological Development: The Microscopic and Metric Evidence from Middle Stone Age (MSA) Points at Mumba RockShelter, Northern Tanzania. Palaeoecology of Africa, 34: 183–206. Bushozi, P. M., A. R. Skinner & L. De Luque. 2020. The Middle Stone Age (MSA) Technological Patterns, Innovations, and Behavioral Changes at Bed VIA of Mumba Rockshelter, Northern Tanzania. African Archaeological Review, 37: 293–310. Chami, F. A. & A. Kwekason. 2003. Neolithic Pottery Traditions from the Islands, the Coast and the Interior of East Africa. African Archaeological Review. 20(2): 65–80. Clack, T. & M. Brittain. 2011. Place-Making, Participative Archaeologies and Mursi Megaliths: Some Implications for Aspects of Pre-And Proto-History in the Horn of Africa. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 5(1): 85–107. Cummings, V. & C. Richards. 2014. The Essence of Dolmen: The Architecture of Megalithic Construction. Mediterranean Prehistory, Colloque, 1–17. Debertolis, P., Tarabella, N. & Marcuccetti, L. 2018. Archaeoacoustic Analysis of a Dolmen on Mount Freddone, Italy. The 6th International Virtual Conference on Advanced Scientific Results Florence, Italy: Super Brain Research Group Organization, pp. 107–114. Diez-Martín, F., M. Domínguez-Rodrigo, P. Sánchez, A. Z. Mabulla, A. Tarriño, R. Barba, et al. 2009. The Middle to Later Stone Age Technological Transition in East Africa: New Data from Mumba Rock-Shelter Bed V (Tanzania) and Their Implications for the Origin Modern Human Behavior. Journal of African Archaeology, 7(2): 147–173. Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., F. Diez-Martín, A. Mabulla, L. Luque, L. Alcala & A. Tarrino. 2007. The Archaeology of the Middle Pleistocene Deposits of Lake Eyasi (Tanzania). Journal of African Archaeology, 5(1): 47–78. Fosbrooke, H. 1950. A Proto-Historic Burial, Naberera Masai District, Tanganyika Territory. South Africa Archaeological Bulletin, 5: 105–107. Gliganic, L., Z. Jacobs, R. Roberts, M. Dominguez-Rodrigo & A. Mabulla. 2012. New Ages for Middle and Later Stone Age Deposits at Mumba Rockshelter, Tanzania: Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating of Quartz and Feldspar Grains. Journal of Human Evolution, 62: 533–547. Grillo, K. M., J. Dunne, F. Marshallc, M. E. Prendergast, E. Casanova, A. O. Gidna, et al. 2020. Molecular and Isotopic Evidence for Milk, Meat, and Plants in Prehistoric Eastern African Herder Food Systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Unit. States Am. 117: 9793–9799. Grillo, K., M. Prendergast, D. Contreras, T. Fitton, A. Gidna, S. Goldstein, et al. 2018. Pastoral Neolithic Settlement at Luxmanda, Tanzania. Journal of Field Archaeology, 43(2): 102–120. Haber, A. & T. Dayan. 2004. Analysing the Process of Domestication: Hagoshrim as a Case Study. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31: 1587–1601. Hildebrand, E., K. Grillo, E. Sawchuk, S. Pfeiffer, L. Conyers, S. Goldstein, et al. 2018. A Monumental Cemetery Built By Eastern Africa’s First Herders Near Lake Turkana, Kenya. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Unit. States Am., 115: 8942–8947. Hoskin, M. 2011. Orientations of Dolmens in Western Europe. Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, 5(S260) United Kingdom: The International Astronomical Union, pp. 116–126. Hoskin, M. & G. Higginbottom. 2002. Orientations of Dolmens of West-Central France. Archaeoastronomy, 27(XXXIII): 51–61. Ikeda, J. & S. Hayama. 1982. The Hadza and the Iraqw in Northern Tanzania: Dermatographical, Anthropological, Odontometrical and Osteological Approaches, African Study Monographs, 5: 1–26, hyperlink https: //repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2433/67986. Joukowsky, M. 1980. A Complete Manual of Field Archaeology: Tools and Techniques of Fieldwork for Archaeologists. Cambridge: Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Karega-Munene. 1996. The East African Neolithic: An Alternative View. African Archaeological Review, 13(4): 247–254. Kohl-Larsen, L. 1943. Auf Den Spuren Des Vormenschen. Stuttgart: Strecker Und Schröder. Kolev, D., L. Tsonev, A. G., Garcia & V. Koleva. 2008. The Orientation of Dolmens in Bulgaria. Proceedings of the International Conference, 29–30 October 2008. Sofia: Sofia, Publishing House St. Ivan Rilski, pp. 169–174. Lane, P. 2004. The ‘Moving Frontier’ and the Transition to Food Production in Kenya. Azania, XXXIX: 244–64. Mabulla, A. & A. Gidna. 2014. The Dawn of Human Imagination: Rock Art of North- Central Tanzania. Cradle of Humankind. II: 99–119. Museo Arqueologico Regional, Alcala De Henares. Mabulla, A. Z. 1996. Middle and Later Stone Age Land Use and Lithic Technology in the Eyasi Basin, Tanzania. Florida, USA: University of Florida. Manega, P. C. 1993. Geochronology, Geochemistry and Isotopic Study of the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites and the Ngorongoro Volcanic Highlands in Northern Tanzania. Boulder: University of Colorado. Mcbrearty, S. & A. Brooks. 2000. The Revolution That Wasn't: A New Interpretation of the Origin of Modern Behaviour. Journal of Human Evolution, 30: 452–565. Mehlman, M. J. 1989. Later Quertenary Archaeological Sequences in Northern Tanzania. Champaign: University of Illinois. Merrick, H. & F. Brown. 1984. Obsidian Sources and Patterns of Source Utilization in Kenya and Northern Tanzania: Some Initial Findings. African Archaeological Review, 2: 129–152. Miller, J. & P. Willoughby. 2014. Radiometrically Dated Ostrich Eggshell Beads from the Middle and Later Stone Age of Magubike Rockshelter, Southern Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution, 74(1): 118–122. Mutundu, K. 2010. An Ethnoarchaeological Framework for the Identification and Distinction of Late Holocene Archaeological Sites in East Africa. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 45(1): 6–23. Odner, K. 1972. Excavations at Narosura, a Stone Bowl Site in the Southern Kenya Highlands. Azania 6(1): 25–92. Pasztor, E. & C. Roslund. 1997. The Orientation of Maltese’ Dolmens’. Journal of European Archaeology Archive, 5(1): 183–189. Piccolo, S. 2013. Ancient Stones: The Dolmen Culture in Prehistoric South-Eastern Sicily. United Kingdom: Brazen Head Publishing. Prendergast, M. 2008. Forager Variability and Transitions to Food Production in Secondary Settings: Kansyore and Pastoral Neolithic Economies in East Africa. Massachusetts, PhD dissertation, Harvard University. Prendergast, M. E., L. Luque, M. Domínguez-Rodrigo, F. Diez-Martín, A. Z. Mabulla & R. Barba. 2007. New Excavations at Mumba Rockshelter, Tanzania. Journal of African Archaeology, 5(2): 217–243. Prendergast, M., K. Grillo, A. Z. Mabulla & H. Wang. 2014. New Dates for Kansyore and Pastoral Neolithic Ceramics in the Eyasi Basin, Tanzania. Journal of African Archaeology, 12(1): 89–98. Robertshaw, P. 1986. Engaruka Revisited: Excavations of 1982. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, Vol 21: 1, 1–26. Robertshaw, P. 1991. Gogo Falls. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 26: 1, 63–195, doi: 10.1080/ 00672709109511425. Roger, J. 1976. Les Dolmens Éthiopiens. In: Annales d'Ethiopie, 10: 41–52. Rosenberg, D., A. Assaf, N. Getzov & A. Gopher. 2008. Flaked Stone Discs of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods in the Southern Levant. Paléorient, 34(2): 137–151. Rubaka, C. C. 2002. Pastoral Neolithic Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in the Mang’ola Graben, Tanzania. Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam: University of Dar es Salaam. Sassoon, H. 1966. Engaruka: Excavation During 1964. Archaeological Research in Africa, 1(1): 79–99. Sawchuk, E. A., S. Pfeiffer, C. E. Klehm, M. E. Cameron, A. C. Hill, A. Janzen, et al. 2019. The Bioarchaeology of Mid-Holocene Pastoralist Cemeteries West of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 11: 6221–6241. Seitsonen, O., E. Sonninen & P. Heikkilä. 2012. Pastoral Neolithic Studies in Northern Tanzania: An Interim Report on XRF and Stable Isotope Analyses in the Engaruka Area. NYAME AKUMA, 77: 11–23. Shimelmitz, R., R. Barkai & A. Gopher. 2004. The Geometric Kebaran Microlithic Assemblage of Ain Miri, Northern Israel. Paléorient, 0/2, 27–140. Silva, F. 2010. Cosmology and the Neolithic. A New Survey of Neolithic Dolmens in Central Portugal. Journal of Cosmology, 9: 2194–2206. Sutton, J. E. 1978. Engaruka and Its Water. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 13(1): 37–40. —. 1984. Irrigation and Soil-Conservation in African Agricultural History With a Reconsideration of the Inyanga Terracing (Zimbabwe) and Engaruka Irrigation Works (Tanzania). Journal of African History, 25(1): 25–41. —. Engaruka: An Irrigation Agricultural Community in Northern Tanzania Before the Maasai. Azania, 33: 1–37. White, T., A. Douglas, D. Berhane, G. David, R. Henry, S. Gary, et al. 2003. Pleistocene Homo Sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 423: 742–747. Willoughby, P. 2007. The Middle Stone Age in East Africa and Modern Human Origins. African Archaeological Review, 11(1): 3–20.