Tanzanian Adolescents in the Digital Age of Cell Phones and the Internet: Access, Use and Risks
Corresponding Author(s) : hezron onditi
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
##issue.vol## 7 ##issue.no## 1 (2018)
##article.abstract##
This study explored cell phones and internet access, use, and potential risks among
Tanzanian secondary school adolescents. A total of 778 students aged 14-18 in Form I
to Form IV responded to a self-report questionnaire, and a subset of 20 participants
participated in semi-structured interviews. Results revealed a remarkable uptake of cell
phones and internet technologies among Tanzanian adolescents. In particular, whereas
about 50% of the students reported to own cell phones (nearly 60% own simcards), 76%
admitted using cell phones at home, and 86% reported to connect to the Internet.
Results showed that male and older adolescents seem to have high level of access
compared to female and younger adolescents. It was further revealed that nearly 50%
of female adolescents who own cell phones reported to hide them from parents.
Adolescents reported to use cell phones and the Internet for socializing, academic and
entertainment purposes. Despite the benefits, adolescents reported to have
experienced online violence and risks including cyberbullying and online sexual
exploitation. Results provide important information for developing policy on cell
phones, the Internet, and social media use and access among Tanzanian children and
youth. In particular, findings suggest for culturally and developmentally appropriate
education and intervention programs, which include global, regional, and national
partners, and that keep up with the changes in the digital world.
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- Allen, J. P. & E. L. Loeb. 2015. The Autonomy?Connection Challenge in Adolescent–Peer
- Relationships. Child Development Perspectives, 9(2): 101–105.
- Arnett, J. 1992. Reckless Behavior in Adolescence: A Developmental Perspective. Developmental
- Review, 12: 339–373.
- Bauman, S. 2012. Cyberbullying in the United States. In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. K. Smith (eds.).
- Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp.143–179). West
- Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
- Best, J. W. & Khan, J. K. 2006. Research in Education. Boston: Pearson.
- Bonanno, R. A. & S. Hymel. 2013. Cyberbullying and Internalizing Difficulties: Above and Beyond
- Traditional Forms of Bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 685–697.
- Corcoran, L., I. Connolly & M. O’Moore. 2012. Cyberbullying in Irish Schools: An Investigation of
- Personality and Self-Concept. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 33: 153–165.
- Creswell, J. W. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Los
- Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.
- Cross, D., Q. Li, P. K. Smith & H. Monks. 2012. Understanding and Preventing Cyberbullying. Where
- Have We Been and Where Should We Be Going? In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. Smith (eds.). Cyberbullying
- in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp. 287–305). West Sussex: John
- Wiley & Sons.
- Davis, M. R. 2012. Facebook Considers Access for 13-and-Younger Crowd. Education Week, 13.
- <http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2012/06/13/35facebook.h31.html?qs=Facebook>.
- Holfeld, B., & M. Grabe, 2012. An Examination of the History, Prevalence, Characteristics, and
- Reporting of Cyberbullying in the United States. In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. K. Smith (eds.).
- Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp. 117–142). West
- Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
- Kafyulilo, A. C. 2012. Access, Use and Perceptions of Teachers and Students Towards Mobile Phones as
- a Tool for Teaching and Learning in Tanzania. Education Information and Technology. 19: 115–127.
- Kowalski, R, M., G, W. Giumetti, A, N. Schroeder & M, R. Lattanner. 2014. Bullying in the Digital
- Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth. Psychological
- Bulletin, 140(4): 1073–1137.
- Kowalski, R, M., Morgan, C, A & Limber, S, P. 2012. Traditional Bullying as a Potential Warning Sign
- of Cyberbullying. School Psychology International, 33(5), 505–519.
- Kraft, E. 2006. Cyberbullying: A Worldwide Trend of Misusing Technology to Harass Others. WIT
- Transactions on Information and Communication Technologies, 36: 155–166.
- Law, D. M. 2009. Social Responsibility on the Internet: A Socio-Ecological Approach to Online Aggression
- Doctoral Thesis, University of British Columbia, Canada.
- Law, D. M., J. D. Shapka & B. F. Olson. 2010. To Control or Not to Control? Parenting Behaviours
- and Adolescent Online Aggression. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6): 1651–1656.
- Lenhart, A. 2012. Teens, Smartphones & Texting. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life
- Project. Retrieved on November 10. 2014 from http://pewthe Internet.org/reports/2012/teensand-smartphones.aspx
- Lenhart, A., K. Purcell, A. Smith & K. Zickuhr. 2010. Social Media & Mobile Internet Use Among
- Teens and Young Adults. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from
- http://www.pewthe Internet.org/2010/02/03/social-media-and-young-adults/
- Li, Q. 2006. Cyberbullying in Schools: A Research of Gender Differences. School Psychology
- International, 27(2): 157–170.
- Livingstone, S & P. K. Smith. 2014. Annual Research Review: Harms Experienced by Child Users of
- Online and Mobile Technologies: The Nature, Prevalence and Management of Sexual and
- Aggressive Risks in the Digital Age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(6): 635–654
- Mathison, S. 1988. Why Triangulate? American Educational Research, 17(2): 13–17.
- Mungy, I. P. M. 2014, (September). Interview by H. Z. Onditi. The Use of Mobile Phones and Internet
- in Tanzania. Manager Corporate Communications, Tanzania Communication Regulatory
- Authority (TCRA), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
- Nastasi, B. K. 1999. Audiovisual Methods in Ethnography. in J. J. Schensul & M. D. Lecompte (eds.),
- Ethnographer’s Toolkit: Book 4. Enhanced Ethnographic Methods: Audiovisual Techniques, Focused
- Group Interviews, and Elicitation Techniques (pp. 1 – 50). Walnut Creek, CA7 Altamira Press.
- O'Keeffe, G. S. & K. Clarke-Pearson. 2011. The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and
- Families. Pediatrics, 127: 800–804.
- Olumide, A. O., P. Adams & O. K. Amodu. 2015. International Note: Awareness and Context of CyberHarassment Among Secondary School Students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Adolescence, 39:
- –14.
- Olumide, A. O., P. Adams & O. K. Amodu. 2016. Prevalence and Correlates of the Perpetration of
- Cyberbullying Among In-School Adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria. International Journal of
- Adolescent Medicine and Health. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2015-0009
- Onditi, H. Z. & J. D. Shapka. 2016, March. Cyberbullying and Cybervictimization in Tanzanian
- Secondary Schools: The Role of Age, Gender, Access to Technology, and Social Assertiveness.
- Presented at the Conference of Society for Research on Adolescence, Baltimore, MA, USA.
- Onditi, H. Z. 2017. Cyberbullying in Tanzania: Adolescents’ Experiences and the Psychosocial Factors
- Influencing Coping Strategies. Doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia, Canada.
- O'Neill, B & T. Dinh. 2015. Mobile Technologies and the Incidence of Cyberbullying in Seven
- European Countries: Findings from Net Children Go Mobile. Societies, 5: 384–398.
- Patchin, J. W & S. Hinduja. 2006. Bullies Move Beyond the Schoolyard a Preliminary Look at
- Cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2): 148–169.
- Patchin, J. W & S. Hinduja. 2010. Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem. Journal of School Health, 80(12):
- –621.
- Rachoene, M & T. Oyedemi. 2015. From Self-Expression to Social Aggression: Cyberbullying Culture
- Among South African Youth on Facebook. South African Journal for Communication Theory and
- Research, 41(3): 302–319.
- Runions, K. C. 2013. Toward a Conceptual Model of Motive and Self-Control in Cyber-Aggression:
- Rage, Revenge, Reward, and Recreation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 751–771.
- Shapka, J. D. 2014. Adolescent Socialization Via the Internet: An Exploration of the Cognitive and
- Contextual Correlates of Online Risk Behavior. Research Proposal for Vancouver School Board.
- Shapka, J. D., H. Z. Onditi, N. Lapidot & B. J. Collie. 2017. Cyberbullying and Cybervictimization
- Within a Cross Cultural Context: A Study of Canadian and a Tanzanian Adolescents. Child
- Development, 1–11. doi:10.1111/cdev.12829.
- Smith, D. M. 2015. Cyberbullying in South African and American Schools: A Legal Comparative
- Study. South African Journal of Education, 35(2): 1–11.
- Smith, P., J. Mahdavi, M. Carvalho, S. Fisher, S. Russell, & N. Tippett. 2008. Cyberbullying: Its
- Nature and Impact in Secondary School Pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49:
- –385.
- Smith, T. 2012, January. Cyberbullying: A World-Wide Problem. Retrieved from http://www.
- cbronline.com/news/cyberbullying-a-worldwide-problem-160112
- Steinberg, L. 1988. Reciprocal Relation Between Parent-Child Distance and Pubertal Maturation.
- Developmental Psychology, 24(1): 122–128.
- Sticca, F & S. Perren. 2013. Is Cyberbullying Worse Than Traditional Bullying? Examining the
- Differential Roles of Medium, Publicity, and Anonymity for the Perceived Severity of Bullying.
- Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 739–750.
- Tippett, N & K. Kwak. 2012. Cyberbullying in South Korea. In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. K. Smith (eds.).
- Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research From International Perspectives, (pp. 202–219). West
- Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
- Tokunaga, R. S. 2010. Following You Home from School: A Critical Review and Synthesis of Research
- on Cyberbullying Victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3): 277–287.
- Tsitsika, A., M. Janikian, S. Wójcik, K. Makaruk, E. Tzavela, C Tzavara, ... & C. Richardson. 2015.
- Cyberbullying Victimization Prevalence and Associations with Internalizing and Externalizing
- Problems Among Adolescents in Six European Countries. Computers in Human Behavior, 51: 1–7.
- United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2015. The Cybercrime Act of 2015. Dar es Salaam: Government
- Printer.
- Valkenburg, P. M & J. Peter. 2011. Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Integrated Model
- of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks. Journal of Adolescents Health, 48, 121–127.
- Varjas, K., B. K. Natstasi, R. B. Moore & A. Jayasena. 2005. Using Ethnographic Methods for
- Development of Culture-Specific Interventions. Journal of School Psychology, 43: 241–258.
- Wolak, J., M. Liberatore & B. N. Levine. 2013. Measuring a Year of Child Pornography Trafficking by
- U.S. Computers on a Peer-To-Peer Network. Child Abuse Negl. 38(2): 347–56. doi:10. 1016/
- j.chiabu.2013.10.018.
##journal.references##
Allen, J. P. & E. L. Loeb. 2015. The Autonomy?Connection Challenge in Adolescent–Peer
Relationships. Child Development Perspectives, 9(2): 101–105.
Arnett, J. 1992. Reckless Behavior in Adolescence: A Developmental Perspective. Developmental
Review, 12: 339–373.
Bauman, S. 2012. Cyberbullying in the United States. In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. K. Smith (eds.).
Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp.143–179). West
Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
Best, J. W. & Khan, J. K. 2006. Research in Education. Boston: Pearson.
Bonanno, R. A. & S. Hymel. 2013. Cyberbullying and Internalizing Difficulties: Above and Beyond
Traditional Forms of Bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 685–697.
Corcoran, L., I. Connolly & M. O’Moore. 2012. Cyberbullying in Irish Schools: An Investigation of
Personality and Self-Concept. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 33: 153–165.
Creswell, J. W. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Los
Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.
Cross, D., Q. Li, P. K. Smith & H. Monks. 2012. Understanding and Preventing Cyberbullying. Where
Have We Been and Where Should We Be Going? In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. Smith (eds.). Cyberbullying
in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp. 287–305). West Sussex: John
Wiley & Sons.
Davis, M. R. 2012. Facebook Considers Access for 13-and-Younger Crowd. Education Week, 13.
<http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2012/06/13/35facebook.h31.html?qs=Facebook>.
Holfeld, B., & M. Grabe, 2012. An Examination of the History, Prevalence, Characteristics, and
Reporting of Cyberbullying in the United States. In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. K. Smith (eds.).
Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp. 117–142). West
Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
Kafyulilo, A. C. 2012. Access, Use and Perceptions of Teachers and Students Towards Mobile Phones as
a Tool for Teaching and Learning in Tanzania. Education Information and Technology. 19: 115–127.
Kowalski, R, M., G, W. Giumetti, A, N. Schroeder & M, R. Lattanner. 2014. Bullying in the Digital
Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth. Psychological
Bulletin, 140(4): 1073–1137.
Kowalski, R, M., Morgan, C, A & Limber, S, P. 2012. Traditional Bullying as a Potential Warning Sign
of Cyberbullying. School Psychology International, 33(5), 505–519.
Kraft, E. 2006. Cyberbullying: A Worldwide Trend of Misusing Technology to Harass Others. WIT
Transactions on Information and Communication Technologies, 36: 155–166.
Law, D. M. 2009. Social Responsibility on the Internet: A Socio-Ecological Approach to Online Aggression
Doctoral Thesis, University of British Columbia, Canada.
Law, D. M., J. D. Shapka & B. F. Olson. 2010. To Control or Not to Control? Parenting Behaviours
and Adolescent Online Aggression. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6): 1651–1656.
Lenhart, A. 2012. Teens, Smartphones & Texting. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life
Project. Retrieved on November 10. 2014 from http://pewthe Internet.org/reports/2012/teensand-smartphones.aspx
Lenhart, A., K. Purcell, A. Smith & K. Zickuhr. 2010. Social Media & Mobile Internet Use Among
Teens and Young Adults. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from
http://www.pewthe Internet.org/2010/02/03/social-media-and-young-adults/
Li, Q. 2006. Cyberbullying in Schools: A Research of Gender Differences. School Psychology
International, 27(2): 157–170.
Livingstone, S & P. K. Smith. 2014. Annual Research Review: Harms Experienced by Child Users of
Online and Mobile Technologies: The Nature, Prevalence and Management of Sexual and
Aggressive Risks in the Digital Age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(6): 635–654
Mathison, S. 1988. Why Triangulate? American Educational Research, 17(2): 13–17.
Mungy, I. P. M. 2014, (September). Interview by H. Z. Onditi. The Use of Mobile Phones and Internet
in Tanzania. Manager Corporate Communications, Tanzania Communication Regulatory
Authority (TCRA), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Nastasi, B. K. 1999. Audiovisual Methods in Ethnography. in J. J. Schensul & M. D. Lecompte (eds.),
Ethnographer’s Toolkit: Book 4. Enhanced Ethnographic Methods: Audiovisual Techniques, Focused
Group Interviews, and Elicitation Techniques (pp. 1 – 50). Walnut Creek, CA7 Altamira Press.
O'Keeffe, G. S. & K. Clarke-Pearson. 2011. The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and
Families. Pediatrics, 127: 800–804.
Olumide, A. O., P. Adams & O. K. Amodu. 2015. International Note: Awareness and Context of CyberHarassment Among Secondary School Students in Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Adolescence, 39:
–14.
Olumide, A. O., P. Adams & O. K. Amodu. 2016. Prevalence and Correlates of the Perpetration of
Cyberbullying Among In-School Adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria. International Journal of
Adolescent Medicine and Health. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2015-0009
Onditi, H. Z. & J. D. Shapka. 2016, March. Cyberbullying and Cybervictimization in Tanzanian
Secondary Schools: The Role of Age, Gender, Access to Technology, and Social Assertiveness.
Presented at the Conference of Society for Research on Adolescence, Baltimore, MA, USA.
Onditi, H. Z. 2017. Cyberbullying in Tanzania: Adolescents’ Experiences and the Psychosocial Factors
Influencing Coping Strategies. Doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia, Canada.
O'Neill, B & T. Dinh. 2015. Mobile Technologies and the Incidence of Cyberbullying in Seven
European Countries: Findings from Net Children Go Mobile. Societies, 5: 384–398.
Patchin, J. W & S. Hinduja. 2006. Bullies Move Beyond the Schoolyard a Preliminary Look at
Cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2): 148–169.
Patchin, J. W & S. Hinduja. 2010. Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem. Journal of School Health, 80(12):
–621.
Rachoene, M & T. Oyedemi. 2015. From Self-Expression to Social Aggression: Cyberbullying Culture
Among South African Youth on Facebook. South African Journal for Communication Theory and
Research, 41(3): 302–319.
Runions, K. C. 2013. Toward a Conceptual Model of Motive and Self-Control in Cyber-Aggression:
Rage, Revenge, Reward, and Recreation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 751–771.
Shapka, J. D. 2014. Adolescent Socialization Via the Internet: An Exploration of the Cognitive and
Contextual Correlates of Online Risk Behavior. Research Proposal for Vancouver School Board.
Shapka, J. D., H. Z. Onditi, N. Lapidot & B. J. Collie. 2017. Cyberbullying and Cybervictimization
Within a Cross Cultural Context: A Study of Canadian and a Tanzanian Adolescents. Child
Development, 1–11. doi:10.1111/cdev.12829.
Smith, D. M. 2015. Cyberbullying in South African and American Schools: A Legal Comparative
Study. South African Journal of Education, 35(2): 1–11.
Smith, P., J. Mahdavi, M. Carvalho, S. Fisher, S. Russell, & N. Tippett. 2008. Cyberbullying: Its
Nature and Impact in Secondary School Pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49:
–385.
Smith, T. 2012, January. Cyberbullying: A World-Wide Problem. Retrieved from http://www.
cbronline.com/news/cyberbullying-a-worldwide-problem-160112
Steinberg, L. 1988. Reciprocal Relation Between Parent-Child Distance and Pubertal Maturation.
Developmental Psychology, 24(1): 122–128.
Sticca, F & S. Perren. 2013. Is Cyberbullying Worse Than Traditional Bullying? Examining the
Differential Roles of Medium, Publicity, and Anonymity for the Perceived Severity of Bullying.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 739–750.
Tippett, N & K. Kwak. 2012. Cyberbullying in South Korea. In Q. Li., D. Cross & P. K. Smith (eds.).
Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research From International Perspectives, (pp. 202–219). West
Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
Tokunaga, R. S. 2010. Following You Home from School: A Critical Review and Synthesis of Research
on Cyberbullying Victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3): 277–287.
Tsitsika, A., M. Janikian, S. Wójcik, K. Makaruk, E. Tzavela, C Tzavara, ... & C. Richardson. 2015.
Cyberbullying Victimization Prevalence and Associations with Internalizing and Externalizing
Problems Among Adolescents in Six European Countries. Computers in Human Behavior, 51: 1–7.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2015. The Cybercrime Act of 2015. Dar es Salaam: Government
Printer.
Valkenburg, P. M & J. Peter. 2011. Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Integrated Model
of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks. Journal of Adolescents Health, 48, 121–127.
Varjas, K., B. K. Natstasi, R. B. Moore & A. Jayasena. 2005. Using Ethnographic Methods for
Development of Culture-Specific Interventions. Journal of School Psychology, 43: 241–258.
Wolak, J., M. Liberatore & B. N. Levine. 2013. Measuring a Year of Child Pornography Trafficking by
U.S. Computers on a Peer-To-Peer Network. Child Abuse Negl. 38(2): 347–56. doi:10. 1016/
j.chiabu.2013.10.018.