The Negative Effects of Cyberbullying Among Secondary School Adolescents in Tanzania
Corresponding Author(s) : hezron onditi
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
Vol. 10 No. 3 (2021): Special Issue Gender II
Abstract
Cyberbullying and its associated consequences on children and adolescents has recently
become a problem of global concern. Using phenomenological research design, this
study explores the negative effects of cyberbullying on Tanzanian secondary school
female and male adolescents. A total of 20 adolescents (50% female) in secondary
schools (Form I to Form IV) who identified themselves as victims of cyberbullying were
involved in the interview to share their lived experiences on the negative effects of
cyberbullying. From thematic analysis, results indicated that, similar to their
counterpart adolescents in the developed countries, Tanzanian female and male
adolescents have experienced emotional, social, cognitive, behavioural, academic, and
health problems as outcomes of cyberbullying. The findings provide further evidence
that cyberbullying and its negative consequences is a problem to adolescents in many
countries in the world, including Tanzania. Implications and suggestions for
intervention programmes, practice and future research are discussed.
Keywords
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Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Anderson, M. & J. Jiang. 2018. Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018. Pew Research Centre. Retrieved
- from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/11/28/teens-social-media-habits-and-experiences/.
- Beran, T. & Q. Li. 2007. The Relationship Between Cyberbullying and School Bullying. The Journal of
- Student Wellbeing, 1: 15–33.
- Birkeland, M. S., K. Breivik & B. Wold. 2014. Peer Acceptance Protects Global Self-Esteem from
- Negative Effects of Low Closeness to Parents During Adolescence and Early Adulthood. Journal
- of Youth and Adolescence, 43(1): 70–80.
- Blumberg, F. C., K. Deater?Deckard, S. L. Calvert, R. M. Flynn, C. S. Green, D. Arnold & P. J. Brooks.
- Digital Games as a Context for Children’s Cognitive Development: Research
- Recommendations and Policy Considerations. Social Policy Report, 32(1): 1–33.
- Bonanno, R. A. & S. Hymel. 2013. Cyberbullying and Internalizing Difficulties: Above and Beyond
- Traditional Forms of Bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 685–697.
- Brooks, P. J. 2019. Digital Games as a Context for Children’s Cognitive Development: Research
- Recommendations and Policy Considerations. Society for Research in Child Development, Social
- Policy Report, 32(1): 1–33.
- Campbell, J. L., C. Quincy, J. Osserman & O. K. Pedersen. 2013. Coding In-Depth Semi Structured
- Interviews: Problems of Unitization and Intercoder Reliability and Agreement. Sociological
- Methods and Research, 42(3): 294–320.
- Corcoran, L., C., M. Guckin & G. Prentice. 2015. Cyberbullying or Cyber Aggression? A Review of
- Existing Definitions of Cyber-Based Peer-To-Peer Aggression. Societies, 5: 245–255.
- Cresswell, J. W. 2014. Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (4th Ed.).
- Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
- Crick, N. R. & K.A. Dodge. 1996. Social Information-Processing Mechanisms in Reactive and
- Proactive Aggression. Child Development, 67: 993–1002.
- Crick, N. R. & K. A. Dodge. 1994. A Review and Reformulation of Social Information Processing
- Mechanisms in Children’s Social Adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115: 74–101. doi:10.
- /0033–2909.115.1.74.
- Dodge, K. A. & D. Schwartz. 1997. Social Information Processing Mechanisms in Aggressive
- Behaviour. in D. M. Stoff, J. Breilling & J. D. Maser (Eds.): Handbook of Antisocial Behaviour.
- (pp.171–180). New York: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.53.6.1146.
- Flick, U. 2009. An Introduction to Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications, Inc.
- Fontana, A. & J. Frey. 1994. Interviewing: The Art of Science. in N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.):
- the Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd. Ed.), pp. 361–376). Thousand Oaks: Sage
- Publications.
- Giménez-Gualdo, A. M., P. Arnaiz-Sánchez, F. Cerezo-Ramírez & E. Prodócimo. 2018. Teachers’ and
- Students’ Perception About Cyberbullying. Intervention and Coping Strategies in Primary and
- Secondary Education. Comunicar. Media Education Research Journal, 26(2): 29–38.
- Hinduja, S. & J. W. Patchin. 2010. Cyberbullying Research Summary Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem.
- Journal of School Health, 80(12): 614–621.
- Hinduja, S. & J. W. Patchin. 2008. Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to
- Offending and Victimization. Deviant Behaviour, 29(2): 129–156.
- Holfeld, B. & M. Grabe. 2012. An Examination of the History, Prevalence, Characteristics, and
- Reporting of Cyberbullying in the United States. in Q. Li., D. Cross. & P. K. Smith (Eds.):
- Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp.117–142). West
- Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
- Juvoven, J. & E. F. Gross. 2008. Bullying Experiences in Cyberspace. Journal of School Health, 78: 496–505.
- Kafyulilo, A. C. 2012. Access, Use and Perceptions of Teachers and Students Towards Mobile Phones as a
- Tool for Teaching and Learning in Tanzania. Education Information and Technology. 19: 115–127.
- Katzer, C., D. Fetchenhauer & F. Belschak. 2009. Cyberbullying: Who Are the Victims? a Comparison
- of Victimization in Internet Chatrooms and Victimization in School. Journal of Media Psychology,
- (1): 25–36.
- Kihwele, J. E. & T. A. L. Bali. 2013. The Perceptions of Teachers, Parents and Students on the Effects of
- Mobile Phone Use on Student Learning in Tanzania. Journal of Education and Practice, 4: 101–106.
- Kowalski, R, M., G. W. Giumetti, A, N. Schroeder & M, R. Lattanner. 2014. Bullying in the Digital
- Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth. Psychological
- Bulletin, 140(4): 1073–1137.
- Kowalski, R, M., C, A. Morgan & S, P. Limber. 2012. Traditional Bullying as a Potential Warning Sign
- of Cyberbullying. School Psychology International, 33(5): 505–519.
- Kowalski, R. M & S, P. Limber. 2013. Psychological, Physical, and Academic Correlates of
- Cyberbullying and Traditional Bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1): S13–S20.
- Law, D. M. 2009. Social Responsibility on the Internet: A Socio-Ecological Approach to Online Aggression
- (Doctoral Thesis). University of British Columbia, Canada.
- Li, Q. 2006. Cyberbullying in Schools: A Research of Gender Differences. School Psychology
- International, 27(2): 157–170.
- Li, Q., D. Cross & P. K. Smith. 2012. Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International
- Perspectives. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
- Martinez, J., A. J. Rodríguez-Hidalgo & I. Zych. 2020. Bullying and Cyberbullying in Adolescents from
- Disadvantaged Areas: Validation of Questionnaires; Prevalence Rates; and Relationship to SelfEsteem, Empathy and Social Skills. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
- Health, 17(17): 6199. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176199.
- Mohajan, H. K. 2018. Qualitative Research Methodology in Social Sciences and Related Subjects.
- Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 7(1): 23–48.
- Offrey, L. D. & C. M. Rinaldi. 2017. Parent–Child Communication and Adolescents’ Problem-Solving
- Strategies in Hypothetical Bullying Situations. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(3):
- –267.
- O’Keeffe, G. S. & K. Clarke-Pearson. 2011. The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and
- Families. Pediatrics, 127: 800–804.
- Okoiye, O. E., N. N. Anayochi & A. T. Onah. 2015. Moderating Effect of Cyber Bullying on the
- Psychological Well-Being of In-School Adolescents in Benin Edo State Nigeria. European Journal
- of Sustainable Development, 4: 109–118.
- Olumide, A. O., P. Adams & O. K. Amodu. 2016. Prevalence and Correlates of the Perpetration of
- Cyberbullying Among In-School Adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria. International Journal of
- Adolescent Medicine and Health, 28(2): 183–191.
- Onditi, H. Z. 2018. Tanzanian Adolescents in the Digital Age of Cell Phones and the Internet: Access,
- Use, and Risks. Journal of Education, Humanities, and Sciences, 7(1): 1–16.
- Onditi, H. Z. & J. D. Shapka. 2019. Cyberbullying and Cyber-Victimization in Tanzanian Secondary
- Schools: Prevalence and Predictors. Journal of Education, Humanities, and Sciences, 8(1): 1–15.
- O’Neill, B. & T. Dinah. 2015. Mobile Technologies and the Incidence of Cyberbullying in Seven
- European Countries: Findings from Net Children Go Mobile. Societies, 5: 384–398.
- Parris, L., K., Varjas, J. Meyers & H. Cutts. 2012. High School Students’ Perceptions of Coping with
- Cyberbullying. Youth and Society, 44(2): 284–306.
- Patchin, J. W. & S. Hinduja. 2012. Cyberbullying Prevention and Response: Expert Perspectives. New York:
- Routledge.
- Patchin, J. W. & S. Hinduja. 2006. Bullies Move Beyond the Schoolyard a Preliminary Look at
- Cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2): 148–169.
- —. 2010. Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem. Journal of School Health, 80(12): 614–621.
- Patchin, J. W. & S. Hinduja, (Eds.). 2012. Cyberbullying Prevention and Response: Expert Perspectives.
- New York: Routledge.
- Prensky, M. 2001. Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, MCB University Press. Retrieved from
- http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/prensky%20–digital%20natives,%20digital%
- immigrants% 20–%20part1.pdf.
- Rachoene, M. & T. Oyedemi. 2015. from Self-Expression to Social Aggression: Cyberbullying Culture
- Among South African Youth on Facebook. South African Journal for Communication Theory and
- Research, 41(3): 302–319.
- Roberto, A. J., J. Eden, D. M. Deiss, M. W. Savage & L. Ramos-Salazar. 2017. The Short-Term Effects
- of a Cyberbullying Prevention Intervention for Parents of Middle School Students. International
- Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(9): 1038. doi:10.3390/Ijerph14091038.
- Runions, K. C. 2013. Toward a Conceptual Model of Motive and Self-Control in Cyber Aggression:
- Rage, Revenge, Reward, and Recreation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 751–771.
- Runions, K., J. D. Shapka, J. Dooley & K. Modecki. 2013. Cyber-Aggression and Victimization and
- Social Information Processing: Integrating the Medium and the Message. Psychology of Violence,
- (1): 9–26.
- Shapka, J. D., H. Z. Onditi, N. Lapidot & B. J. Collie. 2018. Cyberbullying and Cyber-Victimization
- Within a Cross Cultural Context: A Study of Canadian and a Tanzanian Adolescents. Child
- Development, 89: 89–99.
- Shapka, J. D. & D. M. Law. 2013. Does One Size Fit All? Ethnic Differences in Parenting Behaviours
- and Motivations for Adolescent Engagement in Cyberbullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,
- : 723–738.
- Smith, D. M. 2015. Cyberbullying in South African and American Schools: A Legal Comparative
- Study. South African Journal of Education, 35(2): 1–11.Slonje, R. & P. K. Smith. 2008. Cyberbullying: Another Main Type of Bullying? Scandinavian Journal of
- Psychology, 49(2): 147–154.
- Sourander, A., A. B. Klomek, M. Ikonen, J. Lindroos, T. Luntamo, M. Koskelainen,... & H. Helenius.
- Psychosocial Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying Among Adolescents: A
- Population-Based Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(7): 720–728.
- Sticca, F., S. Ruggieri, F. Alsaker & S. Perren. 2013. Longitudinal Risk Factors for Cyberbullying in
- Adolescence. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 23(1): 52–67.
- Tiel, J. V. 2020. Cyberbullying, an Overlooked and Ever Growing Danger to the Development of
- Children. Kids Rights Report, 1–23. Retrieved from https://files.kidsrights.org/wp-content/
- uploads/2020/11/24103147/kidsrights-cyberbullying-report-2020.pdf.
- Tippett, N. & K. Kwak. 2012. Cyberbullying in South Korea. in Q. Li., D. Cross. & P. K. Smith (Eds..
- Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp. 202–219). West
- Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
- Tokunaga, R. S. 2010. Following You Home from School: A Critical Review and Synthesis of Research
- on Cyberbullying Victimization. Computers in Human Behaviour, 26(3): 277–287.
- Tsitsika, A., M. Janikian, S. Wójcik, K. Makaruk, E. Tzavela, C. Tzavara ... & C. Richardson. 2015.
- Cyberbullying Victimization Prevalence and Associations with Internalizing and Externalizing
- Problems Among Adolescents in Six European Countries. Computers in Human Behaviour, 51: 1–7.
- Varjas, K., B. K. Natstasi, R. B. Moore & A. Jayasena. 2005. Using Ethnographic Methods for
- Development of Culture-Specific Interventions. Journal of School Psychology, 43: 241–258.
- Ybarra, M. L., M. Diener-West & P. J. Leaf. 2007. Examining the Overlap in Internet Harassment and
- School Bullying: Implications for School Intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6): 42–50.
- Ybarra, M. L. & K. J. Mitchell. 2004. Youth Engaging in Online Harassment: Associations with
- Caregiver– Child Relationships, Internet Use, and Personal Characteristics. Journal of Adolescence,
- : 319–336
References
Anderson, M. & J. Jiang. 2018. Teens, Social Media & Technology 2018. Pew Research Centre. Retrieved
from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/11/28/teens-social-media-habits-and-experiences/.
Beran, T. & Q. Li. 2007. The Relationship Between Cyberbullying and School Bullying. The Journal of
Student Wellbeing, 1: 15–33.
Birkeland, M. S., K. Breivik & B. Wold. 2014. Peer Acceptance Protects Global Self-Esteem from
Negative Effects of Low Closeness to Parents During Adolescence and Early Adulthood. Journal
of Youth and Adolescence, 43(1): 70–80.
Blumberg, F. C., K. Deater?Deckard, S. L. Calvert, R. M. Flynn, C. S. Green, D. Arnold & P. J. Brooks.
Digital Games as a Context for Children’s Cognitive Development: Research
Recommendations and Policy Considerations. Social Policy Report, 32(1): 1–33.
Bonanno, R. A. & S. Hymel. 2013. Cyberbullying and Internalizing Difficulties: Above and Beyond
Traditional Forms of Bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 685–697.
Brooks, P. J. 2019. Digital Games as a Context for Children’s Cognitive Development: Research
Recommendations and Policy Considerations. Society for Research in Child Development, Social
Policy Report, 32(1): 1–33.
Campbell, J. L., C. Quincy, J. Osserman & O. K. Pedersen. 2013. Coding In-Depth Semi Structured
Interviews: Problems of Unitization and Intercoder Reliability and Agreement. Sociological
Methods and Research, 42(3): 294–320.
Corcoran, L., C., M. Guckin & G. Prentice. 2015. Cyberbullying or Cyber Aggression? A Review of
Existing Definitions of Cyber-Based Peer-To-Peer Aggression. Societies, 5: 245–255.
Cresswell, J. W. 2014. Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (4th Ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Crick, N. R. & K.A. Dodge. 1996. Social Information-Processing Mechanisms in Reactive and
Proactive Aggression. Child Development, 67: 993–1002.
Crick, N. R. & K. A. Dodge. 1994. A Review and Reformulation of Social Information Processing
Mechanisms in Children’s Social Adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115: 74–101. doi:10.
/0033–2909.115.1.74.
Dodge, K. A. & D. Schwartz. 1997. Social Information Processing Mechanisms in Aggressive
Behaviour. in D. M. Stoff, J. Breilling & J. D. Maser (Eds.): Handbook of Antisocial Behaviour.
(pp.171–180). New York: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.53.6.1146.
Flick, U. 2009. An Introduction to Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications, Inc.
Fontana, A. & J. Frey. 1994. Interviewing: The Art of Science. in N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.):
the Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd. Ed.), pp. 361–376). Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
Giménez-Gualdo, A. M., P. Arnaiz-Sánchez, F. Cerezo-Ramírez & E. Prodócimo. 2018. Teachers’ and
Students’ Perception About Cyberbullying. Intervention and Coping Strategies in Primary and
Secondary Education. Comunicar. Media Education Research Journal, 26(2): 29–38.
Hinduja, S. & J. W. Patchin. 2010. Cyberbullying Research Summary Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem.
Journal of School Health, 80(12): 614–621.
Hinduja, S. & J. W. Patchin. 2008. Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to
Offending and Victimization. Deviant Behaviour, 29(2): 129–156.
Holfeld, B. & M. Grabe. 2012. An Examination of the History, Prevalence, Characteristics, and
Reporting of Cyberbullying in the United States. in Q. Li., D. Cross. & P. K. Smith (Eds.):
Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp.117–142). West
Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
Juvoven, J. & E. F. Gross. 2008. Bullying Experiences in Cyberspace. Journal of School Health, 78: 496–505.
Kafyulilo, A. C. 2012. Access, Use and Perceptions of Teachers and Students Towards Mobile Phones as a
Tool for Teaching and Learning in Tanzania. Education Information and Technology. 19: 115–127.
Katzer, C., D. Fetchenhauer & F. Belschak. 2009. Cyberbullying: Who Are the Victims? a Comparison
of Victimization in Internet Chatrooms and Victimization in School. Journal of Media Psychology,
(1): 25–36.
Kihwele, J. E. & T. A. L. Bali. 2013. The Perceptions of Teachers, Parents and Students on the Effects of
Mobile Phone Use on Student Learning in Tanzania. Journal of Education and Practice, 4: 101–106.
Kowalski, R, M., G. W. Giumetti, A, N. Schroeder & M, R. Lattanner. 2014. Bullying in the Digital
Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth. Psychological
Bulletin, 140(4): 1073–1137.
Kowalski, R, M., C, A. Morgan & S, P. Limber. 2012. Traditional Bullying as a Potential Warning Sign
of Cyberbullying. School Psychology International, 33(5): 505–519.
Kowalski, R. M & S, P. Limber. 2013. Psychological, Physical, and Academic Correlates of
Cyberbullying and Traditional Bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1): S13–S20.
Law, D. M. 2009. Social Responsibility on the Internet: A Socio-Ecological Approach to Online Aggression
(Doctoral Thesis). University of British Columbia, Canada.
Li, Q. 2006. Cyberbullying in Schools: A Research of Gender Differences. School Psychology
International, 27(2): 157–170.
Li, Q., D. Cross & P. K. Smith. 2012. Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International
Perspectives. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
Martinez, J., A. J. Rodríguez-Hidalgo & I. Zych. 2020. Bullying and Cyberbullying in Adolescents from
Disadvantaged Areas: Validation of Questionnaires; Prevalence Rates; and Relationship to SelfEsteem, Empathy and Social Skills. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 17(17): 6199. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176199.
Mohajan, H. K. 2018. Qualitative Research Methodology in Social Sciences and Related Subjects.
Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 7(1): 23–48.
Offrey, L. D. & C. M. Rinaldi. 2017. Parent–Child Communication and Adolescents’ Problem-Solving
Strategies in Hypothetical Bullying Situations. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(3):
–267.
O’Keeffe, G. S. & K. Clarke-Pearson. 2011. The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and
Families. Pediatrics, 127: 800–804.
Okoiye, O. E., N. N. Anayochi & A. T. Onah. 2015. Moderating Effect of Cyber Bullying on the
Psychological Well-Being of In-School Adolescents in Benin Edo State Nigeria. European Journal
of Sustainable Development, 4: 109–118.
Olumide, A. O., P. Adams & O. K. Amodu. 2016. Prevalence and Correlates of the Perpetration of
Cyberbullying Among In-School Adolescents in Oyo State, Nigeria. International Journal of
Adolescent Medicine and Health, 28(2): 183–191.
Onditi, H. Z. 2018. Tanzanian Adolescents in the Digital Age of Cell Phones and the Internet: Access,
Use, and Risks. Journal of Education, Humanities, and Sciences, 7(1): 1–16.
Onditi, H. Z. & J. D. Shapka. 2019. Cyberbullying and Cyber-Victimization in Tanzanian Secondary
Schools: Prevalence and Predictors. Journal of Education, Humanities, and Sciences, 8(1): 1–15.
O’Neill, B. & T. Dinah. 2015. Mobile Technologies and the Incidence of Cyberbullying in Seven
European Countries: Findings from Net Children Go Mobile. Societies, 5: 384–398.
Parris, L., K., Varjas, J. Meyers & H. Cutts. 2012. High School Students’ Perceptions of Coping with
Cyberbullying. Youth and Society, 44(2): 284–306.
Patchin, J. W. & S. Hinduja. 2012. Cyberbullying Prevention and Response: Expert Perspectives. New York:
Routledge.
Patchin, J. W. & S. Hinduja. 2006. Bullies Move Beyond the Schoolyard a Preliminary Look at
Cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2): 148–169.
—. 2010. Cyberbullying and Self-Esteem. Journal of School Health, 80(12): 614–621.
Patchin, J. W. & S. Hinduja, (Eds.). 2012. Cyberbullying Prevention and Response: Expert Perspectives.
New York: Routledge.
Prensky, M. 2001. Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, MCB University Press. Retrieved from
http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/prensky%20–digital%20natives,%20digital%
immigrants% 20–%20part1.pdf.
Rachoene, M. & T. Oyedemi. 2015. from Self-Expression to Social Aggression: Cyberbullying Culture
Among South African Youth on Facebook. South African Journal for Communication Theory and
Research, 41(3): 302–319.
Roberto, A. J., J. Eden, D. M. Deiss, M. W. Savage & L. Ramos-Salazar. 2017. The Short-Term Effects
of a Cyberbullying Prevention Intervention for Parents of Middle School Students. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(9): 1038. doi:10.3390/Ijerph14091038.
Runions, K. C. 2013. Toward a Conceptual Model of Motive and Self-Control in Cyber Aggression:
Rage, Revenge, Reward, and Recreation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42: 751–771.
Runions, K., J. D. Shapka, J. Dooley & K. Modecki. 2013. Cyber-Aggression and Victimization and
Social Information Processing: Integrating the Medium and the Message. Psychology of Violence,
(1): 9–26.
Shapka, J. D., H. Z. Onditi, N. Lapidot & B. J. Collie. 2018. Cyberbullying and Cyber-Victimization
Within a Cross Cultural Context: A Study of Canadian and a Tanzanian Adolescents. Child
Development, 89: 89–99.
Shapka, J. D. & D. M. Law. 2013. Does One Size Fit All? Ethnic Differences in Parenting Behaviours
and Motivations for Adolescent Engagement in Cyberbullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,
: 723–738.
Smith, D. M. 2015. Cyberbullying in South African and American Schools: A Legal Comparative
Study. South African Journal of Education, 35(2): 1–11.Slonje, R. & P. K. Smith. 2008. Cyberbullying: Another Main Type of Bullying? Scandinavian Journal of
Psychology, 49(2): 147–154.
Sourander, A., A. B. Klomek, M. Ikonen, J. Lindroos, T. Luntamo, M. Koskelainen,... & H. Helenius.
Psychosocial Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying Among Adolescents: A
Population-Based Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(7): 720–728.
Sticca, F., S. Ruggieri, F. Alsaker & S. Perren. 2013. Longitudinal Risk Factors for Cyberbullying in
Adolescence. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 23(1): 52–67.
Tiel, J. V. 2020. Cyberbullying, an Overlooked and Ever Growing Danger to the Development of
Children. Kids Rights Report, 1–23. Retrieved from https://files.kidsrights.org/wp-content/
uploads/2020/11/24103147/kidsrights-cyberbullying-report-2020.pdf.
Tippett, N. & K. Kwak. 2012. Cyberbullying in South Korea. in Q. Li., D. Cross. & P. K. Smith (Eds..
Cyberbullying in the Global Playground: Research from International Perspectives, (pp. 202–219). West
Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
Tokunaga, R. S. 2010. Following You Home from School: A Critical Review and Synthesis of Research
on Cyberbullying Victimization. Computers in Human Behaviour, 26(3): 277–287.
Tsitsika, A., M. Janikian, S. Wójcik, K. Makaruk, E. Tzavela, C. Tzavara ... & C. Richardson. 2015.
Cyberbullying Victimization Prevalence and Associations with Internalizing and Externalizing
Problems Among Adolescents in Six European Countries. Computers in Human Behaviour, 51: 1–7.
Varjas, K., B. K. Natstasi, R. B. Moore & A. Jayasena. 2005. Using Ethnographic Methods for
Development of Culture-Specific Interventions. Journal of School Psychology, 43: 241–258.
Ybarra, M. L., M. Diener-West & P. J. Leaf. 2007. Examining the Overlap in Internet Harassment and
School Bullying: Implications for School Intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6): 42–50.
Ybarra, M. L. & K. J. Mitchell. 2004. Youth Engaging in Online Harassment: Associations with
Caregiver– Child Relationships, Internet Use, and Personal Characteristics. Journal of Adolescence,
: 319–336