Teachers’ Attitudes towards Student Caning: Do Differences in Socio-demographic Characteristics Really Matter?
Corresponding Author(s) : Mabula Nkuba
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
Vol. 10 No. 3 (2021): Special Issue Gender II
Abstract
Research findings from low-income and high-income countries indicate that teachers’ use
of violent discipline is prevalent. However, studies that explore teachers’ attitudes towards
violence and its association to their socio-demographic characteristics are lacking. This
paper assessed teachers’ attitudes towards student caning and the associated teachers’
socio-demographic characteristics. The data were drawn from four schools in two regions
using a case study design. Considering the total number of participants, 72 teachers (53%
females; average age: 32.47 years, SD = 6.64, range: 22–59 years) participated in this study.
Of the 72 teachers, their qualification ranged from postgraduate degree (2.8%), bachelor’s
degree (74%), two year diploma in education (21%), and others (2.8%). Furthermore, 54% (n
= 39) of the teachers were from rural school settings. The findings indicate that teachers
in the study have positive attitudes towards student caning. However, their differences in
socio-demographic characteristics did not show any difference in their attitudes towards
student caning. This implies that other factors such as culture and parenting orientations
might be responsible for the reported attitude. Hence, interventions on attitude change are
recommended to reverse the current teachers’ positive attitudes towards caning as a means
of discipline management in schools.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Al-Shehab, Ali. 2006. Kuwaiti Intermediate School Teachers’ Responses Toward Corporal
- Punishment. Educational Journal. 20(8): 13–67.
- Antonowicz, L. 2010. Too Often in Silence: A Report on School-Based Violence in West and Central Africa.
- Sweden. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/cotedivoire/too_often_in_silence_report.pdf.
- Baker-Henningham, H., J. Meeks-Gardner, S. Chang & S. Walker. 2009. Experiences of Violence and
- Deficits in Academic Achievement Among Urban Primary School Children in Jamaica. Child Abuse
- & Neglect, 33: 296–306.doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.05.01.
- Ba-Saddik, A. S. & A. S Hattab. 2013. Physical Abuse in Basic-Education Schools in Aden Governorate,
- Yemen: A Cross-Sectional Study. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal = La Revue De Santé De La
- Méditerranée Orientale = Al-Majallah Al-?i???yah Li-Sharq Al-Mutawassi?. 19(4): 333–339. Retrieved
- from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23882958.
- Beazley, H., S. Bessell, J. Ennew & R. Waterson. 2006. What Children Say: Results of Comparative
- Research on the Physical and Emotional Punishment of Children in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: Save
- the Children Sweden Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved from https:// resourcecentre.
- savethechildren.net/sites/default/files/documents/1397.pdf.
- Breen, A., K. Daniels & M. Tomlinson. 2015. Children’s Experiences of Corporal Punishment: A
- Qualitative Study in an Urban Township of South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48: 131–
- doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.04.022.
- Clacherty, G., D. Donald & A. Clacherty. 2005. Zambian Children’s Experience of Corporal and
- Humiliating Punishment: A Quantitative and Qualitative Survey. Pretoria: Save the Children Sweden
- Cheruvalath, R. & M. Tripathi. 2015. Secondary School Teachers’ Perception of Corporal
- Punishment: A Case Study in India. Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 88(4): 127–
- https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2015.1045821.
- Durrant, J. E. 2008. Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals.
- Journal of Developmental and Behavioural Paediatrics, 29(1): 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1097 /dbp.
- b013e318135448a.
- Durrant, J. & R. Ensom. 2012. Physical Punishment of Children: Lessons from 20 Years of Research.
- CMAJ. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.101314.
- Emily, K. J. 2015. The Influence of Gender on the Attitude of Teachers Towards Outlawing of
- Corporal Punishment in Primary Schools in Nandi North District. IOSR Journal of Research &
- Method in Education Ver. I, 5(3): 2320–7388. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388–05314144.
- Feinstein, S. & L. Mwahombela. 2010. Corporal Punishment in Tanzania’s Schools. International
- Review of Education, 56(4): 399–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159–010–9169–5.
- Gershoff, E. T., K. M. Purtell & I. Holas. 2015. Briefs in Psychology: Advances in Child and Family Policy
- and Practice. In: B. H. Fiese (ed.). New York. Retrieved from https://link.springer. com/ book/
- 1007%2f978–3–319–14818–2.
- Gershoff, E. T. 2013. Spanking and Child Development: We Know Enough Now to Stop Hitting Our
- Children, 7(3): 133–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12038.
- —. 2017. School Corporal Punishment in Global Perspective: Prevalence, Outcomes, and Efforts at
- Intervention. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 8506(March): 1–16. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/ 1354
- 2016.1271955.
- Gilbert, R., C. S. Widom, K. Browne, D. Fergusson, E. Webb & S. Janson. 2009. Burden and
- Consequences of Child Maltreatment in High-Income Countries. The Lancet, 373(9657): 68–81.
- https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140–6736(08)61706–7.
- Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children (GIEACPC). 2015a. Ending Legalised
- Violence Against Children. Retrieved from www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/reportsglobal/global-report-2015.pdf.
- —. 2015b. Prohibiting All Corporal Punishment of Children in Africa: Progress and Delay. Retrieved
- from http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/briefings-regional/progress-and-delayafrica-2015–en.pdf.
- —. 2016a. Corporal Punishment of Children: Summaries of Prevalence and Attitudinal Research in the Last
- Years. Retrieved from www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/research-summaries/
- global research%0asummaries.pdf.
- —. Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children (GIEACPC). 2016b. Corporal
- Punishment of Children in the United Republic of Tanzania. Retrieved from http://www.
- endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/states-reports/urtanzania.pdf.
- —. 2017. Prohibiting All Corporal Punishment of Children in Africa : An Essential Step Towards Fulfilling
- the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development for Children in
- Africa : Accelerating Protection, Empowerment and Equality. Retrieved from http://www. endcorporal
- punishment.org/ resources/regional-reports/day-of-the-african-child-briefing-2017.html.
- Hecker, T., K. Goessmann, M. Nkuba & K. Hermenau. 2018. Teachers’ Stress Intensifies Violent
- Disciplining in Tanzanian Secondary Schools. Child Abuse and Neglect, 76(April 2017): 173–183.
- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.10.019.
- Hecker, T., K. Hermenau, D. Isele & T. Elbert. 2014. Corporal Punishment and Children’s
- Externalizing Problems: A Cross-Sectional Study of Tanzanian Primary School Aged Children.
- Child Abuse and Neglect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.007.
- Hecker, T., K. Hermenau, C. Salmen, M. Teicher& T. Elbert. 2016. Harsh Discipline Relates to Internalizing
- Problems and Cognitive Functioning: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Study with School Children in
- Tanzania. BMC Psychiatry, 16: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888–016–0828–3.
- Hermenau, K., T. Hecker, M. Ruf, E. Schauer, T. Elbert & M. Schauer. 2011. Childhood Adversity,
- Mental Ill-Health and Aggressive Behaviour in an African Orphanage: Changes in Response to
- Trauma-Focused Therapy and the Implementation of a New Instructional System. Child and
- Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 5(1): 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753–2000–5–29.
- Kaltenbach, E., K. Hermenau, M. Nkuba, K. Goessmann & T. Hecker. 2018. Improving Interaction
- Competencies with Children—A Pilot Feasibility Study to Reduce School Corporal Punishment.
- Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 27(1): 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10926771.
- 1357060.
- Katz, L. Y., T. O. Afifi, T. Taillieu & K. Cheung. 2015. Substantiated Reports of Child Maltreatment
- from the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect 2008: Examining Child
- and Household Characteristics and Child Func ... Substantiated Reports of Child Maltreatment
- from the Canadian Incident. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(7): 315–323. Retrieved from
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26175390.
- Khateeb, L. A. 2015. The Status of Corporal Punishment in Jordanian Primary Schools from the
- Perspectives Of: Teachers, Students, and Parents. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(27): 161–174.
- Lansford, J. E. & Deater-Deckard, K. 2012. Childrearing Discipline and Violence in Developing
- Countries. Child Development, 83(1): 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467–8624.2011.01676.x.
- Leeb, R. T., L. J. Paulozzi, C. Melanson, T. R. Simon & I. Arias. 2008. Child Maltreatment Surveillance:
- Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements. Atlanta Georgia. Retrieved
- from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cm_surveillance-a.pdf.
- Maphosa, C. & A. Shumba. 2010. Educators’ Disciplinary Capabilities After the Banning of Corporal
- Punishment in South African Schools. South African Journal of Education, 30: 387–399. Retrieved
- from http://sajournalofeducation.co.za/index.php/saje/article/view/361.
- Merrill, K. G., L. Knight, J. R. Glynn, E. Allen, D. Naker & K. M. Devries. 2017. School Staff Perpetration
- of Physical Violence Against Students in Uganda: A Multilevel Analysis of Risk Factors. BMJ Open,
- : E015567. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016–015567.
- Mitchell, C. 2010. Corporal Punishment in the Public Schools: An Analysis of Federal Constitutional
- Claims. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73: 321–341. Mississippi Code § 37–11–57(2) (2013).
- Morrow, V. & R. Singh. 2014. Corporal Punishment in Schools in Andhra Pradesh, India: Children’s and
- Parents’ Views. Oxford: Young Lives.
- Mwai, B. K., I. N. Kimengi & E. J. Kipsoi. 2014. Perceptions of Teachers on the Ban of Corporal
- Punishment in Pre-Primary Institutions in Kenya. World Journal of Education, 4(6): 90–100.
- https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v4n6p90.
- Mweru, M. 2010. Why Are Kenyan Teachers Still Using Corporal Punishment Eight Years After a Ban
- on Corporal Punishment? Child Abuse Review. 19: 248–258. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.1121.
- Nkuba, M., Hermenau, K., Goessmann, K. & Hecker, T. 2018. Mental Health Problems and Their
- Association to Violence and Maltreatment in a Nationally Representative Sample of Tanzanian Secondary School Students. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 0(0): 0. https://doi.org/
- 1007/s00127–018–1511–4.
- Norman, R. E., M. Byambaa, R. De, A. Butchart, J. Scott & T. Vos. 2012. The Long-Term Health
- Consequences of Child Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect: A Systematic Review and
- Meta-Analysis. Plos Medicine, 9(11). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349.
- Oburu, P. O. & K. Palmérus. 2003. Parenting Stress and Self-Reported Discipline Strategies of Kenyan
- Caregiving Grandmothers. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 27(6): 505–512.
- https:// doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000127.
- Parkes, J. & J. Heslop. 2013. Stop Violence Against Girls in School: A Cross-Country Analysis of Baseline
- Research from Ghana, Kenya and Mozambique. Retrieved from www.actionaid.org/.../actionaid/
- svags_-_a_cross_country_analysis_of_baseline_resear..
- Sagree, G. D. & R. Sookrajh. 2014. “Being Hit Was Normal”: Teachers’ (UN) Changing Perceptions of
- Discipline and Corporal Punishment. South African Journal of Education, 34(2): 1–17.
- https://doi.org/10.15700/201412071111.
- Semali, L. M. & P. L. Vumilia. 2016. Challenges Facing Teachers’ Attempts to Enhance Learners’
- Discipline in Tanzania’s Secondary Schools. World Journal of Education, 6(1). https://doi.org/
- 5430/wje.v6n1p50.
- Sogul, K. 2009. Teachers’ Perceptions on Corporal Punishment as a Method of Discipline in
- Elementary Schools. Journal of International Social Research, 2(8): 242–251. Retrieved from
- www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/cilt2/sayi8pdf/kilimci_songul.pdf.
- Straus, M. A. 2010. Prevalence, Societal Causes, and Trends in Corporal Punishment by Parents in
- World Perspective. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73(1): 1–30. Retrieved from
- http://scholarship. law.duke.edu/lcp/vol73/iss2/2.
- United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Violence Against Children in Tanzania: Findings from a
- National Survey 2009. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: UNICEF Tanzania. https://doi.org/ibsn:9987–443–11–7.
- —. 2014. HIDDEN IN PLAIN SIGHT. A Statistical Analysis of Violence Against Children. https://doi.
- org/isbn: 978–92–806–4767–9.
- Weaver, C.M., J. G. Borkowski & T. L. Whitman. 2008. Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure
- and Adolescent Conduct Problems. J Community Pschol. 23(1): 1–7. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/
- jid.2014.371.
- Yaghambe, R. S. & I. Tshabangu. 2013. Disciplinary Networks in Secondary Schools: Policy
- Dimensions and Children’s Rights in Tanzania. Journal of Studies in Education, 3(4): 42–56.
- https://doi.org/10.5296/jse.v3i4.4167
References
Al-Shehab, Ali. 2006. Kuwaiti Intermediate School Teachers’ Responses Toward Corporal
Punishment. Educational Journal. 20(8): 13–67.
Antonowicz, L. 2010. Too Often in Silence: A Report on School-Based Violence in West and Central Africa.
Sweden. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/cotedivoire/too_often_in_silence_report.pdf.
Baker-Henningham, H., J. Meeks-Gardner, S. Chang & S. Walker. 2009. Experiences of Violence and
Deficits in Academic Achievement Among Urban Primary School Children in Jamaica. Child Abuse
& Neglect, 33: 296–306.doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.05.01.
Ba-Saddik, A. S. & A. S Hattab. 2013. Physical Abuse in Basic-Education Schools in Aden Governorate,
Yemen: A Cross-Sectional Study. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal = La Revue De Santé De La
Méditerranée Orientale = Al-Majallah Al-?i???yah Li-Sharq Al-Mutawassi?. 19(4): 333–339. Retrieved
from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23882958.
Beazley, H., S. Bessell, J. Ennew & R. Waterson. 2006. What Children Say: Results of Comparative
Research on the Physical and Emotional Punishment of Children in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: Save
the Children Sweden Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved from https:// resourcecentre.
savethechildren.net/sites/default/files/documents/1397.pdf.
Breen, A., K. Daniels & M. Tomlinson. 2015. Children’s Experiences of Corporal Punishment: A
Qualitative Study in an Urban Township of South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48: 131–
doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.04.022.
Clacherty, G., D. Donald & A. Clacherty. 2005. Zambian Children’s Experience of Corporal and
Humiliating Punishment: A Quantitative and Qualitative Survey. Pretoria: Save the Children Sweden
Cheruvalath, R. & M. Tripathi. 2015. Secondary School Teachers’ Perception of Corporal
Punishment: A Case Study in India. Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 88(4): 127–
https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2015.1045821.
Durrant, J. E. 2008. Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals.
Journal of Developmental and Behavioural Paediatrics, 29(1): 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1097 /dbp.
b013e318135448a.
Durrant, J. & R. Ensom. 2012. Physical Punishment of Children: Lessons from 20 Years of Research.
CMAJ. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.101314.
Emily, K. J. 2015. The Influence of Gender on the Attitude of Teachers Towards Outlawing of
Corporal Punishment in Primary Schools in Nandi North District. IOSR Journal of Research &
Method in Education Ver. I, 5(3): 2320–7388. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388–05314144.
Feinstein, S. & L. Mwahombela. 2010. Corporal Punishment in Tanzania’s Schools. International
Review of Education, 56(4): 399–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159–010–9169–5.
Gershoff, E. T., K. M. Purtell & I. Holas. 2015. Briefs in Psychology: Advances in Child and Family Policy
and Practice. In: B. H. Fiese (ed.). New York. Retrieved from https://link.springer. com/ book/
1007%2f978–3–319–14818–2.
Gershoff, E. T. 2013. Spanking and Child Development: We Know Enough Now to Stop Hitting Our
Children, 7(3): 133–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12038.
—. 2017. School Corporal Punishment in Global Perspective: Prevalence, Outcomes, and Efforts at
Intervention. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 8506(March): 1–16. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/ 1354
2016.1271955.
Gilbert, R., C. S. Widom, K. Browne, D. Fergusson, E. Webb & S. Janson. 2009. Burden and
Consequences of Child Maltreatment in High-Income Countries. The Lancet, 373(9657): 68–81.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140–6736(08)61706–7.
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children (GIEACPC). 2015a. Ending Legalised
Violence Against Children. Retrieved from www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/reportsglobal/global-report-2015.pdf.
—. 2015b. Prohibiting All Corporal Punishment of Children in Africa: Progress and Delay. Retrieved
—. 2016a. Corporal Punishment of Children: Summaries of Prevalence and Attitudinal Research in the Last
Years. Retrieved from www.endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/research-summaries/
global research%0asummaries.pdf.
—. Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children (GIEACPC). 2016b. Corporal
Punishment of Children in the United Republic of Tanzania. Retrieved from http://www.
endcorporalpunishment.org/assets/pdfs/states-reports/urtanzania.pdf.
—. 2017. Prohibiting All Corporal Punishment of Children in Africa : An Essential Step Towards Fulfilling
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development for Children in
Africa : Accelerating Protection, Empowerment and Equality. Retrieved from http://www. endcorporal
punishment.org/ resources/regional-reports/day-of-the-african-child-briefing-2017.html.
Hecker, T., K. Goessmann, M. Nkuba & K. Hermenau. 2018. Teachers’ Stress Intensifies Violent
Disciplining in Tanzanian Secondary Schools. Child Abuse and Neglect, 76(April 2017): 173–183.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.10.019.
Hecker, T., K. Hermenau, D. Isele & T. Elbert. 2014. Corporal Punishment and Children’s
Externalizing Problems: A Cross-Sectional Study of Tanzanian Primary School Aged Children.
Child Abuse and Neglect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.007.
Hecker, T., K. Hermenau, C. Salmen, M. Teicher& T. Elbert. 2016. Harsh Discipline Relates to Internalizing
Problems and Cognitive Functioning: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Study with School Children in
Tanzania. BMC Psychiatry, 16: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888–016–0828–3.
Hermenau, K., T. Hecker, M. Ruf, E. Schauer, T. Elbert & M. Schauer. 2011. Childhood Adversity,
Mental Ill-Health and Aggressive Behaviour in an African Orphanage: Changes in Response to
Trauma-Focused Therapy and the Implementation of a New Instructional System. Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 5(1): 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753–2000–5–29.
Kaltenbach, E., K. Hermenau, M. Nkuba, K. Goessmann & T. Hecker. 2018. Improving Interaction
Competencies with Children—A Pilot Feasibility Study to Reduce School Corporal Punishment.
Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 27(1): 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10926771.
1357060.
Katz, L. Y., T. O. Afifi, T. Taillieu & K. Cheung. 2015. Substantiated Reports of Child Maltreatment
from the Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect 2008: Examining Child
and Household Characteristics and Child Func ... Substantiated Reports of Child Maltreatment
from the Canadian Incident. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(7): 315–323. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26175390.
Khateeb, L. A. 2015. The Status of Corporal Punishment in Jordanian Primary Schools from the
Perspectives Of: Teachers, Students, and Parents. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(27): 161–174.
Lansford, J. E. & Deater-Deckard, K. 2012. Childrearing Discipline and Violence in Developing
Countries. Child Development, 83(1): 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467–8624.2011.01676.x.
Leeb, R. T., L. J. Paulozzi, C. Melanson, T. R. Simon & I. Arias. 2008. Child Maltreatment Surveillance:
Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements. Atlanta Georgia. Retrieved
from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cm_surveillance-a.pdf.
Maphosa, C. & A. Shumba. 2010. Educators’ Disciplinary Capabilities After the Banning of Corporal
Punishment in South African Schools. South African Journal of Education, 30: 387–399. Retrieved
from http://sajournalofeducation.co.za/index.php/saje/article/view/361.
Merrill, K. G., L. Knight, J. R. Glynn, E. Allen, D. Naker & K. M. Devries. 2017. School Staff Perpetration
of Physical Violence Against Students in Uganda: A Multilevel Analysis of Risk Factors. BMJ Open,
: E015567. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016–015567.
Mitchell, C. 2010. Corporal Punishment in the Public Schools: An Analysis of Federal Constitutional
Claims. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73: 321–341. Mississippi Code § 37–11–57(2) (2013).
Morrow, V. & R. Singh. 2014. Corporal Punishment in Schools in Andhra Pradesh, India: Children’s and
Parents’ Views. Oxford: Young Lives.
Mwai, B. K., I. N. Kimengi & E. J. Kipsoi. 2014. Perceptions of Teachers on the Ban of Corporal
Punishment in Pre-Primary Institutions in Kenya. World Journal of Education, 4(6): 90–100.
https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v4n6p90.
Mweru, M. 2010. Why Are Kenyan Teachers Still Using Corporal Punishment Eight Years After a Ban
on Corporal Punishment? Child Abuse Review. 19: 248–258. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.1121.
Nkuba, M., Hermenau, K., Goessmann, K. & Hecker, T. 2018. Mental Health Problems and Their
Association to Violence and Maltreatment in a Nationally Representative Sample of Tanzanian Secondary School Students. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 0(0): 0. https://doi.org/
1007/s00127–018–1511–4.
Norman, R. E., M. Byambaa, R. De, A. Butchart, J. Scott & T. Vos. 2012. The Long-Term Health
Consequences of Child Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect: A Systematic Review and
Meta-Analysis. Plos Medicine, 9(11). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349.
Oburu, P. O. & K. Palmérus. 2003. Parenting Stress and Self-Reported Discipline Strategies of Kenyan
Caregiving Grandmothers. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 27(6): 505–512.
https:// doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000127.
Parkes, J. & J. Heslop. 2013. Stop Violence Against Girls in School: A Cross-Country Analysis of Baseline
Research from Ghana, Kenya and Mozambique. Retrieved from www.actionaid.org/.../actionaid/
svags_-_a_cross_country_analysis_of_baseline_resear..
Sagree, G. D. & R. Sookrajh. 2014. “Being Hit Was Normal”: Teachers’ (UN) Changing Perceptions of
Discipline and Corporal Punishment. South African Journal of Education, 34(2): 1–17.
https://doi.org/10.15700/201412071111.
Semali, L. M. & P. L. Vumilia. 2016. Challenges Facing Teachers’ Attempts to Enhance Learners’
Discipline in Tanzania’s Secondary Schools. World Journal of Education, 6(1). https://doi.org/
5430/wje.v6n1p50.
Sogul, K. 2009. Teachers’ Perceptions on Corporal Punishment as a Method of Discipline in
Elementary Schools. Journal of International Social Research, 2(8): 242–251. Retrieved from
www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/cilt2/sayi8pdf/kilimci_songul.pdf.
Straus, M. A. 2010. Prevalence, Societal Causes, and Trends in Corporal Punishment by Parents in
World Perspective. Law and Contemporary Problems, 73(1): 1–30. Retrieved from
http://scholarship. law.duke.edu/lcp/vol73/iss2/2.
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Violence Against Children in Tanzania: Findings from a
National Survey 2009. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: UNICEF Tanzania. https://doi.org/ibsn:9987–443–11–7.
—. 2014. HIDDEN IN PLAIN SIGHT. A Statistical Analysis of Violence Against Children. https://doi.
org/isbn: 978–92–806–4767–9.
Weaver, C.M., J. G. Borkowski & T. L. Whitman. 2008. Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure
and Adolescent Conduct Problems. J Community Pschol. 23(1): 1–7. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/
jid.2014.371.
Yaghambe, R. S. & I. Tshabangu. 2013. Disciplinary Networks in Secondary Schools: Policy
Dimensions and Children’s Rights in Tanzania. Journal of Studies in Education, 3(4): 42–56.