Contextualising the Pillars of Household Food Security: Evidence from Iringa District, Tanzania
Corresponding Author(s) : Tiemo Romward Haule
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
##issue.vol## 11 ##issue.no## 1 (2022)
##article.abstract##
This paper contextualises the pillars of food security based on the perceptions of local
communities in Iringa district, Tanzania. The pillars are food availability, food accessibility,
food affordability, food adequacy, food acceptability and food stability. The study involved
376 participants. Structured interviews, field observation, focused group discussions, indepth interviews and documentary review were the methods used for data collection.
Findings reveal that many households (76.2%) in Iringa were facing food shortage. The
findings show that food insecurity in the district was exacerbated by the lack of steadiness
in the six pillars of household food security. Given its semi-arid climatic conditions, the
study concluded that the instability of these pillars push many households in the district
into food insecurity and loss of income. This leads to the recommendations that efforts
by the government, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the private sector to
alleviate recurrent food shortages in the district should focus on helping households
address the sustainably of each of the pillars of food security.
##submission.howToCite.downloadCitation##
##plugins.generic.citationStyleLanguage.download.ris####plugins.generic.citationStyleLanguage.download.bibtex##
- Adhikari, S. 2018. Food Security: Pillars, Determinants and Factors Affecting It. Available at https: //www.
- publichealthnotes.com/food-security-determinants-and-urbanization/. Accessed 26/04/2021.
- Agidew, A.A. & K.N. Singh. 2018. Determinants of Food Insecurity in the Rural Farm Households in
- South Wollo Zone of Ethiopia: The Case of the Teleyayen Sub-Watershed. Agricultural and Food
- Economics, 6: 1–23.
- Ajaero, C.K. 2017. A Gender Perspective on the Impact of Flood on the Food Security of Households
- in Rural Communities of Anambra State, Nigeria. Food Security, 9(4): 685–695.
- Akukwe, T.I. 2020. Household Food Security and Its Determinants in Agrarian Communities of
- Southeastern NIGERIA. Agro-Science. 19(1): 54–60.
- Alphonce, R. 2017. Ending Rural Hunger: The Case of Tanzania. Available at https: //www.brookings.
- edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/erh-tanzania-case-study.pdf. Accessed 20/05/2021.
- Alonso, E.B. 2015. The Impact of Culture, Religion and Traditional Knowledge on Food and Nutrition
- Security in Developing Countries (FOODSECURE Working Paper No. 30).
- Alonso, E.B., L. Cockx & J. Swinnen. 2017. Culture and Food Security. LICOS Discussion Paper
- /2017.
- Ayele, W.A., M. Kassa, Y. Fentahun & H. Edmealem. 2020. Prevalence and Associated Factors for Rural
- Households Food Insecurity in Selected Districts of East Gojjam Zone, Northern Ethiopia: CrossSectional Study. BMC Public Health. 20: 1–13. Https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12889–020–8220–0.
- Barrows, C.W. 2000. An Exploratory Study of Food and Beverage Training in Private Clubs.
- International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12(3): 190–97.
- Burchi, F. & P. De Muro. 2016. From Food Availability to Nutritional Capabilities: Advancing Food
- Security Analysis. Food Policy, 60: 10–19. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.03.008.
- Cafer, A., S. Ramachandran, G. Mann & M. Kaiser. 2019. National Food Affordability: A County-Level
- Analysis. Community Development, 50(2): 201–216.
- Capone, R., H. El Bilali., P. Debs., G. Cardone & N. Driouech. 2014. Food Economic Accessibility and
- Affordability in the Mediterranean Region: An Exploratory Assessment at Micro and Macro
- Levels. Journal of Food Security, 2(1): 1–12
- Carson, J. & S. Boege. 2020. The Intersection of Food Availability, Access and Affordability with Food
- Security and Health. Carsey School of Public Health, University of New Hampshire.
- Clapp, J., W.G. Moseley., B. Burlingame & P. Termine. 2022. Viewpoint: The Case for a SixDimensional Food Security Framework. Food Policy, 106: 1–10.
- Coates, J. & D. Maxwell. 2012. Reaching for the Stars? Universal Measures of Household Food Security.
- UN FAO International Scientific Symposium on Food Security and Nutrition Measurement.
- Rome: FAO.
- Creswell, J.W. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approach. 3rd edition.
- Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Dawson. C. 2007. A Practical Guide to Research Methods. A Use-Friendly Manual for Mastering Research
- Techniques and Projects. 3rd edition. United Kingdom: How to Content.
- Devereux, S. 2000. Famine in the twentieth century (IDS Working Paper No. 105). Institute of
- Development Studies, Brighton.
- —. 2001. Sen’s Entitlement Approach: Critiques and Counter-Critiques. Oxford Development Studies,
- (3): 245–263.
- Easterby-Smith, M., R. Thorpe & P.R. Jackson. 2008. Management Research. 3rd Edition. London: Sage
- Publishers.
- Englberger, L. 2012. Revisiting the Vitamin a Fiasco: Going Local in Micronesia. In B. Burlingame &
- S. Dernini (Eds.). Sustainable Diets and Biodiversity. Rome: FAO.
- FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017.
- Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. Rome: FAO.
- —. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding Against Economic
- Slowdowns and Downturns. Rome: FAO.
- —. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming Food Systems for Food
- Security, Improved Nutrition and Affordable Healthy Diets for All. Rome: FAO.
- Farzana, F.D., A.S. Rahman., S. Sultana., M.J. Raihan., M.A. Haque., J.L. Waid. & T. Ahmed. 2017.
- Coping Strategies Related to Food Insecurity at the Household Level in Bangladesh. PLoS ONE,
- (4): 1–17.
- Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1996. World Food Summit, Corporate Document Repository.
- Rome: FAO.
- —. 2006. Food Security. Policy Brief, Issue 2. Rome: FAO.
- —. 2008. An Introduction to the Basic Concepts of Food Security. Rome: FAO.
- —. 2009. Declaration of the World Food Summit on Food Security. Rome: FAO.
- —. 2012. Adaptation to Climate Change in Semi-Arid Environments: Experience and Lessons from
- Mozambique. Rome: FAO.
- —. 2017. Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition in Africa 2017. The Food Security and Nutrition–
- Conflict Nexus: Building Resilience for Food Security, Nutrition and Peace. Rome: FAO.
- Gebre, G.G. & D.B. Rahut. 2021. Prevalence of Household Food Insecurity in East Africa: Linking
- Food Access with Climate Vulnerability. Climate Risk Management, 33: 1–15. https: //doi.org/
- 1016/j.crm.2021.100333.
- Haug, R. & J. Hella. 2013. The Art of Balancing Food Security: Securing Availability and Affordability
- of Food in Tanzania. Food Sec, 5: 415–426.
- Haule, T.R. 2019. Role of Non-Timber Forest Products in Communities' Adaptation to Climate Variability
- Effects in Iringa District, Tanzania, Doctoral dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam.
- —. 2021. Climate Variability and Feminization of Poverty in Tanzania: The Contribution of Gendered
- Ownership and Access to Household Assets. Tanzania Journal of Population Studies and
- Development, 28(1): 17–40.
- Haule, T.R. & A. Mwamfupe. 2018. The Implications of Non-Timber Forest Products’ Access By-Laws
- on Household Food Security in Semi-Arid Zones of Iringa District, Tanzania. Journal of the
- Geographical Association of Tanzania, 39(1): 92–117.
- Harvey, C.A., M. Saborio-Rodríguez, M.R. Martinez-Rodríguez, B. Viguera, A. Chain-Guadarrama, R.
- Vignola, ... & F. Alpizar. 2018. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Among Smallholder
- Farmers in Central America. Agric & Food Secur, 7(57): 1–20.
- Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC). 2019. Technical Manual Version 3.1: Evidence and
- Standards for Better Food Security and Nutrition Decisions. Rome: FAO.
- Joshua, M.K., C. Ngongondo, F. Chipungu, M. Monjerezi, E. Liwenga, A.E. Majule, … & R. Lamboll.
- Climate Change in Semi-Arid Malawi: Perceptions, Adaptation Strategies and Water
- Governance. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 8(3): 1–10.
- Khatri-chhetri, A. & K.L. Maharjan. 2006. Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies in Rural Areas of
- Nepal: A Case Study of Dailekh District in Mid-Western Development Region. Journal of
- International Development and Cooperation, 12(2): 25–45.
- Kibona, E. 2009. Climate Variability and Change Adaptation Strategies and Implication to Gender Roles in
- Simanjiro District (Master’s Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam).
- Kihupi, M.L., C. Mahonge & E.E. Chingonikaya. 2015. Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to
- Impact of Climate Change in Semi-Arid Areas of Iringa District Tanzania. Journal of Biology,
- Agriculture and Healthcare, 5(2): 123–131.
- Kihupi, M.L. 2016. Effectiveness of Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies in Improving Well-Being in
- Light of Climate Change in Iringa District Tanzania (Doctoral Thesis, Sokoine University of
- Agriculture).
- Knueppel, D., M. Demment & L. Kaiser. 2009. Validation of the Household Food Insecurity Access
- Scale in Rural Tanzania. Public Health Nutrition, 13(3): 360–367.
- Macharia, P.N., E.G. Thuranira, L.W. Ng’ang’a, J. Lugadiru & S. Wakori. 2012. Perceptions and
- Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability by Immigrant Farmers in Semi-Arid Regions of
- Kenya. African Crop Science Journal. 20(2): 287–296.
- Majule, A. E. 2010. The Impact of Land Management Practice on Soil Quality and Implications to
- Smallholder Productivity in Southern Highlands Tanzania. Environmental Economics, 1(1): 59–67.
- Makoye, K. 2017. Survey Finds Most Tanzanians Go Hungry, Despite Government Denials. Available
- at www.reuters.com/article/tanzania-hunger-idUSL5N1GJ5CP. Accessed 22/8/2021.
- Massawe, G.D. 2016. Farming Systems and Household Food Security in Tanzania: The Case of Mvomero
- and Kishapu Districts (Doctoral Thesis, University College Dublin).
- Mdachi, M. 2014. Effects of Food Insecurity Among Pastoralist Families in the Changing Climate of Iringa
- Rural District, Tanzania (Master’s Thesis, Sokoine University of Agriculture)
- Mende, D.H., M.W. Mwatawala & K.A. Kayunze. 2015. Entitlement to Food Security Approach
- Explaining Food Security in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania More Than Other Theories.
- Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 5(3): 64–76.
- Mudrak, R., Y. Tsymbalyuk, L. Fytsykand & C. Puah. 2018. Affordability of Food as a Key Condition
- of Food Security of Households. Economic Annals-XXI, 168(11–12): 53–56.
- Mwamfupe, D.G. 2015. The Experience of Community Cereal Banks in Food-Deficit Areas of SemiArid Tanzania. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 5(6): 1–7.
- Obadiah, K. 2014. Determinants of Household Food Security in Lugari and Makueni Sub-Counties,
- Kenya. Journal of Macro-Economics, 22(7): 105–128.
- Oluoko-Odingo, A.A. 2006. Food Security and Poverty Among Small-Scale Farmers in Nyando
- District, Kenya (Doctoral Thesis, University of Nairobi).
- Osiemo, J. & T. Kweka. 2019. Climate Risk Profile Iringa District. Iringa Region Climate Risk Profile Series.
- CARE International Tanzania and the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).
- Osmani, S. R. 1993. The Entitlement Approach to Famine: An Assessment (WIDER Working Papers No.
- . World Institute for Development Economics Research.
- Oyiga, B., H. Mekibib & W. Christine. 2011. Implications of Climate Change on Crop Yield and Food
- Accessibility in Sub Saharan Africa. Bonn University, Germany.
- Parvathamma, G.L. 2015. An Assessment on Food Security in Developing Economies-Problems and
- Policy Initiatives. Journal of Economics and Finance, 6(1): 1–10.
- Peng, W. & E.M. Berry. 2019. The Concept of Food Security. In P. Ferranti, E.M. Berry & J.R. Anderson
- (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, Vol. 2. Elsevier.
- Prince, M. & M. Davies. 2001. Moderator Teams: An Extension to Focus Group Methodology.
- Qualitative Market Research, 4(4): 207–216.
- Rapsomanikis, G. 2015. The Economic Lives of Smallholder Farmers: An Analysis Based on Household Data
- from Nine Countries. Rome: FAO.
- Rubin, A. & E. Babbie. 2007. Essential Research Methods for Social Work. Thomson Brooks. USA.
- Sen, A. 1981. Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Suleiman, M.S., V.O. Wasonga, J.S. Mbau, A. Suleiman & Y.A. Elhadi. 2017. Non-Timber Forest
- Products and Their Contribution to Households’ Income Around Falgore Game Reserve in Kano,
- Nigeria. Ecological Processes, 6(23): 1–14.
- Tambo, J. A. & T. Abdoulaye. 2012. Climate Change and Agricultural Technology Adoption: The Case
- of Drought Tolerant Maize in Rural Nigeria. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change,
- : 277–292.
- Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC). 2015. Tanzania National Nutrition Survey 2014 - Final
- Report. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre.
- United Nations (UN). 2019. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019. New York: United Nations.
- United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2000. The Tanzania Development Vision 2025. Dar es Salaam:
- Planning Commission.
- —. 2008. Study on Strategies for Addressing Negative Effects of Climate Change in Food Insecure Areas of
- Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Cooperatives.
- —. 2013a. Iringa Rural District Council Socio-Economic Profile. National Bureau of Statistics, Dar es
- Salaam and Iringa Rural District Council, Iringa.
- —. 2013b. Iringa Region Socio-Economic Profile. National Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam and Iringa
- Regional Secretariat.
- —. 2016. Iringa District Council Strategic Plan: 2015/2016–2020/2021. Dar es Salaam: President’s
- Office, Regional Administration and Local Government.
- —. 2017. Comprehensive Food Security and Nutrition Assessment Report. Dar es Salaam: The Disaster
- Management Department- Prime Minister’s Office and the National Food Security Division -
- Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries.
- Wenban-Smith, H., A. Faße & U. Grote. 2016. Food Security in Tanzania: The Challenge of Rapid
- Urbanization. Food Security, 8(5): 973–984.
- World Bank. 2019. Tanzania Mainland Poverty Assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Wright, L., L. Vance., C. Sudduth & J.B. Epps. 2015. The Impact of a Home-Delivered Meal Program
- on Nutritional Risk, Dietary Intake, Food Security, Loneliness, and Social Well-Being. Journal of
- Nutrition in Gerontology and Geriatrics, 34(2): 218–27.
- Yamane, T. 1967. Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. 2nd Edition. New York: Harper and Row.
- Zewdie, A. 2014. Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security: A Literature Review in Sub Saharan
- Africa. J Earth Sci Clim Change, 5(8): 1–4
##journal.references##
Adhikari, S. 2018. Food Security: Pillars, Determinants and Factors Affecting It. Available at https: //www.
publichealthnotes.com/food-security-determinants-and-urbanization/. Accessed 26/04/2021.
Agidew, A.A. & K.N. Singh. 2018. Determinants of Food Insecurity in the Rural Farm Households in
South Wollo Zone of Ethiopia: The Case of the Teleyayen Sub-Watershed. Agricultural and Food
Economics, 6: 1–23.
Ajaero, C.K. 2017. A Gender Perspective on the Impact of Flood on the Food Security of Households
in Rural Communities of Anambra State, Nigeria. Food Security, 9(4): 685–695.
Akukwe, T.I. 2020. Household Food Security and Its Determinants in Agrarian Communities of
Southeastern NIGERIA. Agro-Science. 19(1): 54–60.
Alphonce, R. 2017. Ending Rural Hunger: The Case of Tanzania. Available at https: //www.brookings.
edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/erh-tanzania-case-study.pdf. Accessed 20/05/2021.
Alonso, E.B. 2015. The Impact of Culture, Religion and Traditional Knowledge on Food and Nutrition
Security in Developing Countries (FOODSECURE Working Paper No. 30).
Alonso, E.B., L. Cockx & J. Swinnen. 2017. Culture and Food Security. LICOS Discussion Paper
/2017.
Ayele, W.A., M. Kassa, Y. Fentahun & H. Edmealem. 2020. Prevalence and Associated Factors for Rural
Households Food Insecurity in Selected Districts of East Gojjam Zone, Northern Ethiopia: CrossSectional Study. BMC Public Health. 20: 1–13. Https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12889–020–8220–0.
Barrows, C.W. 2000. An Exploratory Study of Food and Beverage Training in Private Clubs.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12(3): 190–97.
Burchi, F. & P. De Muro. 2016. From Food Availability to Nutritional Capabilities: Advancing Food
Security Analysis. Food Policy, 60: 10–19. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.03.008.
Cafer, A., S. Ramachandran, G. Mann & M. Kaiser. 2019. National Food Affordability: A County-Level
Analysis. Community Development, 50(2): 201–216.
Capone, R., H. El Bilali., P. Debs., G. Cardone & N. Driouech. 2014. Food Economic Accessibility and
Affordability in the Mediterranean Region: An Exploratory Assessment at Micro and Macro
Levels. Journal of Food Security, 2(1): 1–12
Carson, J. & S. Boege. 2020. The Intersection of Food Availability, Access and Affordability with Food
Security and Health. Carsey School of Public Health, University of New Hampshire.
Clapp, J., W.G. Moseley., B. Burlingame & P. Termine. 2022. Viewpoint: The Case for a SixDimensional Food Security Framework. Food Policy, 106: 1–10.
Coates, J. & D. Maxwell. 2012. Reaching for the Stars? Universal Measures of Household Food Security.
UN FAO International Scientific Symposium on Food Security and Nutrition Measurement.
Rome: FAO.
Creswell, J.W. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approach. 3rd edition.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dawson. C. 2007. A Practical Guide to Research Methods. A Use-Friendly Manual for Mastering Research
Techniques and Projects. 3rd edition. United Kingdom: How to Content.
Devereux, S. 2000. Famine in the twentieth century (IDS Working Paper No. 105). Institute of
Development Studies, Brighton.
—. 2001. Sen’s Entitlement Approach: Critiques and Counter-Critiques. Oxford Development Studies,
(3): 245–263.
Easterby-Smith, M., R. Thorpe & P.R. Jackson. 2008. Management Research. 3rd Edition. London: Sage
Publishers.
Englberger, L. 2012. Revisiting the Vitamin a Fiasco: Going Local in Micronesia. In B. Burlingame &
S. Dernini (Eds.). Sustainable Diets and Biodiversity. Rome: FAO.
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017.
Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. Rome: FAO.
—. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding Against Economic
Slowdowns and Downturns. Rome: FAO.
—. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming Food Systems for Food
Security, Improved Nutrition and Affordable Healthy Diets for All. Rome: FAO.
Farzana, F.D., A.S. Rahman., S. Sultana., M.J. Raihan., M.A. Haque., J.L. Waid. & T. Ahmed. 2017.
Coping Strategies Related to Food Insecurity at the Household Level in Bangladesh. PLoS ONE,
(4): 1–17.
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1996. World Food Summit, Corporate Document Repository.
Rome: FAO.
—. 2006. Food Security. Policy Brief, Issue 2. Rome: FAO.
—. 2008. An Introduction to the Basic Concepts of Food Security. Rome: FAO.
—. 2009. Declaration of the World Food Summit on Food Security. Rome: FAO.
—. 2012. Adaptation to Climate Change in Semi-Arid Environments: Experience and Lessons from
Mozambique. Rome: FAO.
—. 2017. Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition in Africa 2017. The Food Security and Nutrition–
Conflict Nexus: Building Resilience for Food Security, Nutrition and Peace. Rome: FAO.
Gebre, G.G. & D.B. Rahut. 2021. Prevalence of Household Food Insecurity in East Africa: Linking
Food Access with Climate Vulnerability. Climate Risk Management, 33: 1–15. https: //doi.org/
1016/j.crm.2021.100333.
Haug, R. & J. Hella. 2013. The Art of Balancing Food Security: Securing Availability and Affordability
of Food in Tanzania. Food Sec, 5: 415–426.
Haule, T.R. 2019. Role of Non-Timber Forest Products in Communities' Adaptation to Climate Variability
Effects in Iringa District, Tanzania, Doctoral dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam.
—. 2021. Climate Variability and Feminization of Poverty in Tanzania: The Contribution of Gendered
Ownership and Access to Household Assets. Tanzania Journal of Population Studies and
Development, 28(1): 17–40.
Haule, T.R. & A. Mwamfupe. 2018. The Implications of Non-Timber Forest Products’ Access By-Laws
on Household Food Security in Semi-Arid Zones of Iringa District, Tanzania. Journal of the
Geographical Association of Tanzania, 39(1): 92–117.
Harvey, C.A., M. Saborio-Rodríguez, M.R. Martinez-Rodríguez, B. Viguera, A. Chain-Guadarrama, R.
Vignola, ... & F. Alpizar. 2018. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Among Smallholder
Farmers in Central America. Agric & Food Secur, 7(57): 1–20.
Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC). 2019. Technical Manual Version 3.1: Evidence and
Standards for Better Food Security and Nutrition Decisions. Rome: FAO.
Joshua, M.K., C. Ngongondo, F. Chipungu, M. Monjerezi, E. Liwenga, A.E. Majule, … & R. Lamboll.
Climate Change in Semi-Arid Malawi: Perceptions, Adaptation Strategies and Water
Governance. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 8(3): 1–10.
Khatri-chhetri, A. & K.L. Maharjan. 2006. Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies in Rural Areas of
Nepal: A Case Study of Dailekh District in Mid-Western Development Region. Journal of
International Development and Cooperation, 12(2): 25–45.
Kibona, E. 2009. Climate Variability and Change Adaptation Strategies and Implication to Gender Roles in
Simanjiro District (Master’s Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam).
Kihupi, M.L., C. Mahonge & E.E. Chingonikaya. 2015. Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to
Impact of Climate Change in Semi-Arid Areas of Iringa District Tanzania. Journal of Biology,
Agriculture and Healthcare, 5(2): 123–131.
Kihupi, M.L. 2016. Effectiveness of Smallholder Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies in Improving Well-Being in
Light of Climate Change in Iringa District Tanzania (Doctoral Thesis, Sokoine University of
Agriculture).
Knueppel, D., M. Demment & L. Kaiser. 2009. Validation of the Household Food Insecurity Access
Scale in Rural Tanzania. Public Health Nutrition, 13(3): 360–367.
Macharia, P.N., E.G. Thuranira, L.W. Ng’ang’a, J. Lugadiru & S. Wakori. 2012. Perceptions and
Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability by Immigrant Farmers in Semi-Arid Regions of
Kenya. African Crop Science Journal. 20(2): 287–296.
Majule, A. E. 2010. The Impact of Land Management Practice on Soil Quality and Implications to
Smallholder Productivity in Southern Highlands Tanzania. Environmental Economics, 1(1): 59–67.
Makoye, K. 2017. Survey Finds Most Tanzanians Go Hungry, Despite Government Denials. Available
at www.reuters.com/article/tanzania-hunger-idUSL5N1GJ5CP. Accessed 22/8/2021.
Massawe, G.D. 2016. Farming Systems and Household Food Security in Tanzania: The Case of Mvomero
and Kishapu Districts (Doctoral Thesis, University College Dublin).
Mdachi, M. 2014. Effects of Food Insecurity Among Pastoralist Families in the Changing Climate of Iringa
Rural District, Tanzania (Master’s Thesis, Sokoine University of Agriculture)
Mende, D.H., M.W. Mwatawala & K.A. Kayunze. 2015. Entitlement to Food Security Approach
Explaining Food Security in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania More Than Other Theories.
Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 5(3): 64–76.
Mudrak, R., Y. Tsymbalyuk, L. Fytsykand & C. Puah. 2018. Affordability of Food as a Key Condition
of Food Security of Households. Economic Annals-XXI, 168(11–12): 53–56.
Mwamfupe, D.G. 2015. The Experience of Community Cereal Banks in Food-Deficit Areas of SemiArid Tanzania. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 5(6): 1–7.
Obadiah, K. 2014. Determinants of Household Food Security in Lugari and Makueni Sub-Counties,
Kenya. Journal of Macro-Economics, 22(7): 105–128.
Oluoko-Odingo, A.A. 2006. Food Security and Poverty Among Small-Scale Farmers in Nyando
District, Kenya (Doctoral Thesis, University of Nairobi).
Osiemo, J. & T. Kweka. 2019. Climate Risk Profile Iringa District. Iringa Region Climate Risk Profile Series.
CARE International Tanzania and the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT).
Osmani, S. R. 1993. The Entitlement Approach to Famine: An Assessment (WIDER Working Papers No.
. World Institute for Development Economics Research.
Oyiga, B., H. Mekibib & W. Christine. 2011. Implications of Climate Change on Crop Yield and Food
Accessibility in Sub Saharan Africa. Bonn University, Germany.
Parvathamma, G.L. 2015. An Assessment on Food Security in Developing Economies-Problems and
Policy Initiatives. Journal of Economics and Finance, 6(1): 1–10.
Peng, W. & E.M. Berry. 2019. The Concept of Food Security. In P. Ferranti, E.M. Berry & J.R. Anderson
(Eds.). Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, Vol. 2. Elsevier.
Prince, M. & M. Davies. 2001. Moderator Teams: An Extension to Focus Group Methodology.
Qualitative Market Research, 4(4): 207–216.
Rapsomanikis, G. 2015. The Economic Lives of Smallholder Farmers: An Analysis Based on Household Data
from Nine Countries. Rome: FAO.
Rubin, A. & E. Babbie. 2007. Essential Research Methods for Social Work. Thomson Brooks. USA.
Sen, A. 1981. Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Suleiman, M.S., V.O. Wasonga, J.S. Mbau, A. Suleiman & Y.A. Elhadi. 2017. Non-Timber Forest
Products and Their Contribution to Households’ Income Around Falgore Game Reserve in Kano,
Nigeria. Ecological Processes, 6(23): 1–14.
Tambo, J. A. & T. Abdoulaye. 2012. Climate Change and Agricultural Technology Adoption: The Case
of Drought Tolerant Maize in Rural Nigeria. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change,
: 277–292.
Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC). 2015. Tanzania National Nutrition Survey 2014 - Final
Report. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre.
United Nations (UN). 2019. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019. New York: United Nations.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2000. The Tanzania Development Vision 2025. Dar es Salaam:
Planning Commission.
—. 2008. Study on Strategies for Addressing Negative Effects of Climate Change in Food Insecure Areas of
Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Cooperatives.
—. 2013a. Iringa Rural District Council Socio-Economic Profile. National Bureau of Statistics, Dar es
Salaam and Iringa Rural District Council, Iringa.
—. 2013b. Iringa Region Socio-Economic Profile. National Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam and Iringa
Regional Secretariat.
—. 2016. Iringa District Council Strategic Plan: 2015/2016–2020/2021. Dar es Salaam: President’s
Office, Regional Administration and Local Government.
—. 2017. Comprehensive Food Security and Nutrition Assessment Report. Dar es Salaam: The Disaster
Management Department- Prime Minister’s Office and the National Food Security Division -
Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries.
Wenban-Smith, H., A. Faße & U. Grote. 2016. Food Security in Tanzania: The Challenge of Rapid
Urbanization. Food Security, 8(5): 973–984.
World Bank. 2019. Tanzania Mainland Poverty Assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Wright, L., L. Vance., C. Sudduth & J.B. Epps. 2015. The Impact of a Home-Delivered Meal Program
on Nutritional Risk, Dietary Intake, Food Security, Loneliness, and Social Well-Being. Journal of
Nutrition in Gerontology and Geriatrics, 34(2): 218–27.
Yamane, T. 1967. Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. 2nd Edition. New York: Harper and Row.
Zewdie, A. 2014. Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security: A Literature Review in Sub Saharan
Africa. J Earth Sci Clim Change, 5(8): 1–4