The Effects of Household Shocks on Child Nutrition Status in Tanzania
Corresponding Author(s) : Monica Sebastian Kauky
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
Vol. 10 No. 4 (2021)
Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to examine the effects of household shocks on the nutrition status of children between 0–59 months in Tanzania. The study employed the national panel survey data of Tanzania collected in three waves: 2008/09, 2010/11, and 2012/13. The study used the panel random-effects probit model to estimate the effects of household shocks on child nutrition status, measured by binary variables: stunting, wasting, and underweight. Findings indicated that weather shocks increase the probability of a child being stunted and underweight. Moreover, the results revealed that food price rise shocks and the death of a family member increase the probability of child-stunting. In addition, the findings indicated that food assistance reduces the probability of a child being stunted and underweight. These findings suggest the need for the government to improve food assistance programs to reach many people, especially the poor and marginalized households in a period of shocks. In addition, agricultural policies that aim at increasing productivity, such as irrigation schemes, should also be enhanced to enable food availability in the country; and protect children from malnutrition even after the occurrence of shocks
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- Akombi, B. J., K. E. Agho, D. Merom, A. M. Renzaho & J. J. Hall. 2017. Child Malnutrition in SubSaharan Africa?: A Meta-Analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys (2006–2016). May. https: //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177338. Akresh, R., P. Verwimp & T. Bundervoet. 2011. Civil War , Crop Failure , and Child Stunting in Rwanda. 59(4): 777–810. Alderman, H. 2009. Preschool Nutrition and Subsequent Schooling Attainment?: Longitudinal Evidence from Tanzania Draft?: March 2008 Preschool Nutrition and Subsequent Schooling Attainment?: Longitudinal Evidence from Tanzania Harold Alderman the World Bank Hans Hoogeveen Th. May 2014. https: //doi.org/10.1086/592875. Alderman, H., J. Hoddinott & B. Kinsey. 2006. Long-Term Consequences of Early Childhood Malnutrition. Oxford Economic Papers, 58(3): 450–474. https: //doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpl008. Arndt, C., M. A. Hussain & L. P. Østerdal. 2012. Working Paper No. 2012 / 89 Effects of Food Price Shocks on Child Malnutrition?: The Mozambican Experience 2008 / 09. Arndt, C., M. A. Hussain, V. Salvucci & L. Peter. 2016. Syddansk Universitet Effects of Food Price Shocks on Child Malnutrition the Mozambican Experience 2008 / 2009 Arndt, Thomas Channing?; Hussain, M. Azhar?; Salvucci, Vincenzo?; Østerdal, Lars Peter Economics, and Human Biology Publication Date?: Publis. Economics and Human Biology, 22: 1–13. https: //doi. org/ 10.1016/j.ehb.2016.03.003. Baez, J.E. & I.V.Santos. 2007. Children's Vulnerability to Weather Shocks: A Natural Disaster as a Natural Experiment. Social Science Research Network, New York. March (2007). Bonjean, C. A., S. Brunelin & C. Simonet. 2012. Impact of Climate-Related Shocks on Child’s Health in Burkina Faso. July 2014. Carter, M. R. & J. A. Maluccio. 2003. Social Capital and Coping With Economic Shocks: An Analysis of Stunting of South African Children. World Development, 31(7): 1147–1163. https: //doi.org/ 10.1016/s0305–750x(03)00062–7. Chen, E. A., A. D. Martin & K. A. Matthews. 2006. Socioeconomic Status and Health?: Do Gradients Differ Within Childhood and Adolescence?? 62: 2161–2170. https: //doi.org/10.1016/ j.socscimed. 2005.08.054. Chongela, J. 2015. Contribution of Agriculture Sector to the Tanzanian Economy. 3(7): 57–70. Datar, A., J. Liu, S. Linnemayr & C. Stecher. 2013. The Impact of Natural Disasters on Child Health and Investments in Rural India. Social Science and Medicine, 76(1): 83–91. https: //doi.org/ 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.10.008. Dercon, S. & J. Hoddinott. 2003. Health, shocks and poverty persistence, WIDER Discussion Papers. World Institute for Development Economics (UNUWIDER), 8. Dercon, S., J. Hoddinott & T. Woldehanna. 2005. Shocks and Consumption in 15 Ethiopian Villages, 1999-2004. Journal of African Economies, 14(4): 55 Dhanaraj, S., C. M. Paul & S. Gade. 2019. Household Income Dynamics and Investment in Children: Evidence from India. Education Economics, 27(5): 507–520. Edoka, I. O. 2013. Weather Shocks and Nutritional Status of Disadvantaged Children in Vietnam. Health Econometrics and Data Group, The University of York, WP, 13(10). Galiano, A. & M. Vera-Hernández. 2008. Health Shocks, Household Consumption, and Child Nutrition. Instituto Valenciano De Investigaciones Económicas. Gaydosh, L. 2015. Childhood Risk of Parental Absence in Tanzania. Demography, 52(4): 1121–1146. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s13524–015–0411–4. Groot, R. De, T. Palermo, S. Handa, L. Peter & R. Amber. 2017. Cash Transfers and Child Nutrition?: Pathways and Impacts. May 2015, 621–643. https: //doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12255. Halmdienst, N. & R. Winter-Ebmer. 2014. Long-Run Relations Between Childhood Shocks and Health in Late Adulthood — Evidence from the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe. 60(April): 402–434. https: //doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifu015. Hoddinott, J. & B. Kinsey. 2001. Child Growth in the Time of Drought. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 63(4): 409–436. Johnston, F. E., S. M. Low, Y. De Baessa & R. B. Macvean. 1987. Interaction of Nutritional and Socioeconomic Status as Determinants of Cognitive Development in Disadvantaged Urban Guatemalan Children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 73(4): 501–506. https: //doi.org/ 10.1002/ajpa.1330730412. Kousky, C. 2016. Impacts of Natural Disasters on Children. The Future of children, 73–92. Kumar, S., R. Molitor & S. Vollmer. 2016. Drought and Early Child Health in Rural India Population Council. Population and Development Review. https: //www.popcouncil.org/research/drought-andearly-child-health-in-rural-india. Leroy, J. 2011. ZSCORE06: Stata Module to Calculate Anthropometric Z-Scores Using the 2006 WHO Child Growth Standards. https: //econpapers.repec.org/repec: boc: bocode: s457279. Martin, W. & M. Ivanic. 2016. Food Price Changes, Price Insulation, and Their Impacts on Global and Domestic Poverty. in Food Price Volatility and Its Implications for Food Security and Policy Springer International Publishing. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978–3–319–28201–5,_pp. 101–113. Martorell, R., L. K. Khan & D. G. Schroeder. 1994. Reversibility of Stunting: Epidemiological Findings in Children from Developing Countries. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 48(SUPPL. 1): S45– 57. http: //europepmc.org/article/med/8005090. Martorell, R. 1999. The Nature of Child Malnutrition and Its Long-Term Implications. Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 20(3): 288–292. Mbegalo, T. 2016. The Impact of Food Price Changes and Land Policy Reforms on Household Welfare in Rural Tanzania (No. 217). Discussion Papers. Michaelsen, M. M. & S. Tolan. 2012. Children at Risk: The Effect of Crop Loss on Child Health in Rural Mexico #376. RUHR Economic Papers. Mikalitsa, S. M. 2015. Intrahousehold Allocation, Household Headship, and Nutrition of Under-Fives: A Study of Western Kenya | African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. Mkonda, M. Y. & He, X. 2018. Agricultural History Nexus Food Security and Policy Framework in Tanzania. Agriculture & Food Security, 1–12. Nsabimana, A. & J. T. Mensah,2020. WIDER Working Paper 2020 / 57 Weather Shocks and Child Nutrition Evidence from Tanzania. May. Ogasawara, K. & M. Yumitori. 2019. Early-Life Exposure to Weather Shocks and Child Height: Evidence from Industrializing Japan. SSM - Population Health, 7(November 2018): 100317. Omitsu, M. & T. Yamano. 2006. The Impacts of Hurricane Mitch on Child Health: Evidence from Nicaragua. Outes-Leon, I. & A. Sanchez. 2008. An Assessment of the Young Lives Sampling Approach in Ethiopia. Young Lives Technical Note, 1(March): 1–37. Pitt, M. M. & M. R. Rosenzweig. 1985. Health and Nutrient Consumption Across and Within Farm Households. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 67(2): 212. https: //doi.org/10.2307/1924720. Rossel, J. D. 2008. The Impact of Climatic Shocks on Child Nutrition in Peru. Peruvian Young Lives Project, DFID. University of Oxford, UK. 38p. Sarris, A., S. Savastano & L. Christiaensen. 2006. The Role of Agriculture in Reducing Poverty in Tanzania: A Household Perspective from Rural Kilimanjaro and Ruvuma. FAO Commodity and Trade Policy Research Working Paper. 19: 1–37. www.fao.org/es/esc/. Shukur, G. & P. Mantalos. 2015. Size and Power of the RESET Test as Applied to Systems of Equations?: A Size and Power of the RESET Test as Applied to Systems of Equations?: A Bootstrap Approach. May. https: //doi.org/10.22237/jmasm/1099267800. Singhal, S. 2019. Early Life Shocks and Mental Health?: The Long-Term Effect of the War In. Journal of Development Economics, 141(March 2018): 102244. https: //doi.org/10.1016/ j.jdeveco. 2018.06.002. Sulaiman, M., M. Parveen, M., & Das, N. C. 2009. Impact of the Food Price Hike on Nutritional Status of Women and Children. Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC. (Vol. 7, Issue 38) Tarrass, F. & M. Benjelloun. 2012b. The Effects of Water Shortages on Health and Human Development. in Perspectives in Public Health. 132(5): 240–244. SAGE https: //doi.org/ 10.1177/ 1757913910391040. United Nations Children's Fund. 1990. Strategy for Improved Nutrition of Children and Women in Developing Countries. A UNICEF Policy Review. ERIC Clearinghouse. https: //digitallibrary. un. org/record/132779. United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2012. Demographic and Health Survey. 2012. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Tanzania. World Health Organisation (WHO). 2011. WHO Child Growth Standards Are Based on Length/Height, Weight, and Age. 76–85. https: //doi.org/10.1080/08035320500495548. WHO, UNICEF & World Bank. 2018. Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition: Key Findings of the 2018 Edition (No. WHO/NMH/NHD/18.9). Williams, R. & N. Dame. 2018. Panel Data for Linear Models. The Stata Journal, 18(2): 293-326. Woldehanna, T. 2010. Economic Shocks and Early Childhood Nutritional Achievements: A Case in 20 Villages of Rural and Urban Ethiopia. June 2009. Yamano, T., H. Alderman & L. Christiaensen. 2005. Child Growth, Shocks, and Food Aid in Rural Ethiopia. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 87(2): 273–288. https: //doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467–8276.2005.00721.x. Yamauchi, F., & Larson, D. F. 2019. Intra-household resource allocation when food prices soar: Impacts on Child Growth in Indonesia (Vol. 1867). Intl Food Policy Res Inst., 2019 September 20.
References
Akombi, B. J., K. E. Agho, D. Merom, A. M. Renzaho & J. J. Hall. 2017. Child Malnutrition in SubSaharan Africa?: A Meta-Analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys (2006–2016). May. https: //doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177338. Akresh, R., P. Verwimp & T. Bundervoet. 2011. Civil War , Crop Failure , and Child Stunting in Rwanda. 59(4): 777–810. Alderman, H. 2009. Preschool Nutrition and Subsequent Schooling Attainment?: Longitudinal Evidence from Tanzania Draft?: March 2008 Preschool Nutrition and Subsequent Schooling Attainment?: Longitudinal Evidence from Tanzania Harold Alderman the World Bank Hans Hoogeveen Th. May 2014. https: //doi.org/10.1086/592875. Alderman, H., J. Hoddinott & B. Kinsey. 2006. Long-Term Consequences of Early Childhood Malnutrition. Oxford Economic Papers, 58(3): 450–474. https: //doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpl008. Arndt, C., M. A. Hussain & L. P. Østerdal. 2012. Working Paper No. 2012 / 89 Effects of Food Price Shocks on Child Malnutrition?: The Mozambican Experience 2008 / 09. Arndt, C., M. A. Hussain, V. Salvucci & L. Peter. 2016. Syddansk Universitet Effects of Food Price Shocks on Child Malnutrition the Mozambican Experience 2008 / 2009 Arndt, Thomas Channing?; Hussain, M. Azhar?; Salvucci, Vincenzo?; Østerdal, Lars Peter Economics, and Human Biology Publication Date?: Publis. Economics and Human Biology, 22: 1–13. https: //doi. org/ 10.1016/j.ehb.2016.03.003. Baez, J.E. & I.V.Santos. 2007. Children's Vulnerability to Weather Shocks: A Natural Disaster as a Natural Experiment. Social Science Research Network, New York. March (2007). Bonjean, C. A., S. Brunelin & C. Simonet. 2012. Impact of Climate-Related Shocks on Child’s Health in Burkina Faso. July 2014. Carter, M. R. & J. A. Maluccio. 2003. Social Capital and Coping With Economic Shocks: An Analysis of Stunting of South African Children. World Development, 31(7): 1147–1163. https: //doi.org/ 10.1016/s0305–750x(03)00062–7. Chen, E. A., A. D. Martin & K. A. Matthews. 2006. Socioeconomic Status and Health?: Do Gradients Differ Within Childhood and Adolescence?? 62: 2161–2170. https: //doi.org/10.1016/ j.socscimed. 2005.08.054. Chongela, J. 2015. Contribution of Agriculture Sector to the Tanzanian Economy. 3(7): 57–70. Datar, A., J. Liu, S. Linnemayr & C. Stecher. 2013. The Impact of Natural Disasters on Child Health and Investments in Rural India. Social Science and Medicine, 76(1): 83–91. https: //doi.org/ 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.10.008. Dercon, S. & J. Hoddinott. 2003. Health, shocks and poverty persistence, WIDER Discussion Papers. World Institute for Development Economics (UNUWIDER), 8. Dercon, S., J. Hoddinott & T. Woldehanna. 2005. Shocks and Consumption in 15 Ethiopian Villages, 1999-2004. Journal of African Economies, 14(4): 55 Dhanaraj, S., C. M. Paul & S. Gade. 2019. Household Income Dynamics and Investment in Children: Evidence from India. Education Economics, 27(5): 507–520. Edoka, I. O. 2013. Weather Shocks and Nutritional Status of Disadvantaged Children in Vietnam. Health Econometrics and Data Group, The University of York, WP, 13(10). Galiano, A. & M. Vera-Hernández. 2008. Health Shocks, Household Consumption, and Child Nutrition. Instituto Valenciano De Investigaciones Económicas. Gaydosh, L. 2015. Childhood Risk of Parental Absence in Tanzania. Demography, 52(4): 1121–1146. https: //doi.org/10.1007/s13524–015–0411–4. Groot, R. De, T. Palermo, S. Handa, L. Peter & R. Amber. 2017. Cash Transfers and Child Nutrition?: Pathways and Impacts. May 2015, 621–643. https: //doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12255. Halmdienst, N. & R. Winter-Ebmer. 2014. Long-Run Relations Between Childhood Shocks and Health in Late Adulthood — Evidence from the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe. 60(April): 402–434. https: //doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifu015. Hoddinott, J. & B. Kinsey. 2001. Child Growth in the Time of Drought. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 63(4): 409–436. Johnston, F. E., S. M. Low, Y. De Baessa & R. B. Macvean. 1987. Interaction of Nutritional and Socioeconomic Status as Determinants of Cognitive Development in Disadvantaged Urban Guatemalan Children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 73(4): 501–506. https: //doi.org/ 10.1002/ajpa.1330730412. Kousky, C. 2016. Impacts of Natural Disasters on Children. The Future of children, 73–92. Kumar, S., R. Molitor & S. Vollmer. 2016. Drought and Early Child Health in Rural India Population Council. Population and Development Review. https: //www.popcouncil.org/research/drought-andearly-child-health-in-rural-india. Leroy, J. 2011. ZSCORE06: Stata Module to Calculate Anthropometric Z-Scores Using the 2006 WHO Child Growth Standards. https: //econpapers.repec.org/repec: boc: bocode: s457279. Martin, W. & M. Ivanic. 2016. Food Price Changes, Price Insulation, and Their Impacts on Global and Domestic Poverty. in Food Price Volatility and Its Implications for Food Security and Policy Springer International Publishing. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978–3–319–28201–5,_pp. 101–113. Martorell, R., L. K. Khan & D. G. Schroeder. 1994. Reversibility of Stunting: Epidemiological Findings in Children from Developing Countries. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 48(SUPPL. 1): S45– 57. http: //europepmc.org/article/med/8005090. Martorell, R. 1999. The Nature of Child Malnutrition and Its Long-Term Implications. Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 20(3): 288–292. Mbegalo, T. 2016. The Impact of Food Price Changes and Land Policy Reforms on Household Welfare in Rural Tanzania (No. 217). Discussion Papers. Michaelsen, M. M. & S. Tolan. 2012. Children at Risk: The Effect of Crop Loss on Child Health in Rural Mexico #376. RUHR Economic Papers. Mikalitsa, S. M. 2015. Intrahousehold Allocation, Household Headship, and Nutrition of Under-Fives: A Study of Western Kenya | African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. Mkonda, M. Y. & He, X. 2018. Agricultural History Nexus Food Security and Policy Framework in Tanzania. Agriculture & Food Security, 1–12. Nsabimana, A. & J. T. Mensah,2020. WIDER Working Paper 2020 / 57 Weather Shocks and Child Nutrition Evidence from Tanzania. May. Ogasawara, K. & M. Yumitori. 2019. Early-Life Exposure to Weather Shocks and Child Height: Evidence from Industrializing Japan. SSM - Population Health, 7(November 2018): 100317. Omitsu, M. & T. Yamano. 2006. The Impacts of Hurricane Mitch on Child Health: Evidence from Nicaragua. Outes-Leon, I. & A. Sanchez. 2008. An Assessment of the Young Lives Sampling Approach in Ethiopia. Young Lives Technical Note, 1(March): 1–37. Pitt, M. M. & M. R. Rosenzweig. 1985. Health and Nutrient Consumption Across and Within Farm Households. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 67(2): 212. https: //doi.org/10.2307/1924720. Rossel, J. D. 2008. The Impact of Climatic Shocks on Child Nutrition in Peru. Peruvian Young Lives Project, DFID. University of Oxford, UK. 38p. Sarris, A., S. Savastano & L. Christiaensen. 2006. The Role of Agriculture in Reducing Poverty in Tanzania: A Household Perspective from Rural Kilimanjaro and Ruvuma. FAO Commodity and Trade Policy Research Working Paper. 19: 1–37. www.fao.org/es/esc/. Shukur, G. & P. Mantalos. 2015. Size and Power of the RESET Test as Applied to Systems of Equations?: A Size and Power of the RESET Test as Applied to Systems of Equations?: A Bootstrap Approach. May. https: //doi.org/10.22237/jmasm/1099267800. Singhal, S. 2019. Early Life Shocks and Mental Health?: The Long-Term Effect of the War In. Journal of Development Economics, 141(March 2018): 102244. https: //doi.org/10.1016/ j.jdeveco. 2018.06.002. Sulaiman, M., M. Parveen, M., & Das, N. C. 2009. Impact of the Food Price Hike on Nutritional Status of Women and Children. Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC. (Vol. 7, Issue 38) Tarrass, F. & M. Benjelloun. 2012b. The Effects of Water Shortages on Health and Human Development. in Perspectives in Public Health. 132(5): 240–244. SAGE https: //doi.org/ 10.1177/ 1757913910391040. United Nations Children's Fund. 1990. Strategy for Improved Nutrition of Children and Women in Developing Countries. A UNICEF Policy Review. ERIC Clearinghouse. https: //digitallibrary. un. org/record/132779. United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2012. Demographic and Health Survey. 2012. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Tanzania. World Health Organisation (WHO). 2011. WHO Child Growth Standards Are Based on Length/Height, Weight, and Age. 76–85. https: //doi.org/10.1080/08035320500495548. WHO, UNICEF & World Bank. 2018. Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition: Key Findings of the 2018 Edition (No. WHO/NMH/NHD/18.9). Williams, R. & N. Dame. 2018. Panel Data for Linear Models. The Stata Journal, 18(2): 293-326. Woldehanna, T. 2010. Economic Shocks and Early Childhood Nutritional Achievements: A Case in 20 Villages of Rural and Urban Ethiopia. June 2009. Yamano, T., H. Alderman & L. Christiaensen. 2005. Child Growth, Shocks, and Food Aid in Rural Ethiopia. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 87(2): 273–288. https: //doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467–8276.2005.00721.x. Yamauchi, F., & Larson, D. F. 2019. Intra-household resource allocation when food prices soar: Impacts on Child Growth in Indonesia (Vol. 1867). Intl Food Policy Res Inst., 2019 September 20.