The Role of Media in Promoting Sexuality Information Among Higher Education Students in Tanzania: The Case of Dar es Salaam University College of Education (DUCE)
Corresponding Author(s) : Margareth J. Bilinga
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
##issue.vol## 10 ##issue.no## 3 (2021): Special Issue Gender II
##article.abstract##
For most students in Tanzania and elsewhere, the use of media is an integral part of their
daily life, and as such it has been influencing their studies in various ways. This study
explores the role of media in promoting knowledge and skills on sexuality to students in
higher learning institutions in Tanzania. A mixed method research design informed the
study: a cross-sectional survey design informed quantitative data, while the qualitative
data was informed by the phenomenological research design. A sample of 300 students
was drawn using simple and stratified random sampling, as well as convenient sampling
techniques. The quantitative data were analysed to obtain mean, standard deviation and
independent t-test statistics; while qualitative data were subjected to thematic analysis.
The findings revealed that students highly use media to be informed on sexuality
contents. Some of the media so far used were Instagram, radio, television, forums,
WhatsApp and Facebook. While on one hand information gained has been helpful in
informing about sexuality and its associated risks, on the other it has been exposing
students to negative influences, including undesirable sexual behaviours, cyberbullying,
and stigmatization. Comparatively, the study shows no significant difference in the
deployment of media for surfing sexuality information between male and female
students. The study calls for online stakeholders to design messages that are userfriendly and sexually educative since the media has proven to be a convenient means for
students to learn on sexuality compared to other means.
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- Implications for Counselling Practice. Canadian Journal of Family and Youth, 11(1): 85–103.
- Abdullahi, A. A., I. B. Adekeye, K. O. Mahmoud & S. J. Akor. 2013. Sexual and Health Preventive Behaviour
- of Secondary School Students in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. Center Point Journal, 17: 61–80.
- Anderson, N., S. Paredes-Solis, Milne, K. Omer, N. Markkanen, D. Laetsang & A. Corkcroft. 2012.
- Prevalence and Risk Factors for Forced or Coerced Sex Among School Going Youth: National
- Cross-Sectional Studies in 10 Southern African Countries in 2003 and 2007. BMJ Open,
- (E000754}. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2001– 000754.
- Asrat, A. 2014. Assessment of Sexual Risk Behaviours of In-school Youth: Effect of Living
- Arrangement of Students; West Gojam Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. American Journal
- of Health Research. 2(2): 78–83.
- Bandura, A. 1994. Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication. in J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.):
- Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research (pp. 61–90). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Best, J. W. & Khan, J. V. 2006. Research in Education (10th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
- Bilinga M. J. 2017. Sex-Based Analysis of Students’ Views on Integrating Sexuality Education in
- Higher Leaning Institutions in Tanzania: The Case of Dar es Salaam University College of
- Education. Journal of Education, Humanities and Sciences, 6(2): 68–80.
- Bilinga, M. J. 2012. Effectiveness of School Based - Sexuality Education in Promoting Knowledge and
- Skills Relating to Prevention of Pregnancies and HIV in Tanzania. Unpublished, PhD thesis,
- University of Dar es Salaam.
- Brown, D.J. 2002. Mass Media Influence on Sexuality. Journal of Sex Research. 39(1): 42–45.
- —. 2000. Adolescents' Sexual Media Diets. J Adolesc Health, 27(2): 35.
- Bryant, C. M. & M. Chavious. 2014. Assessing the Impact of Social Media on the Risky Sexual
- Behaviours of College Students, Tuskegee University, USA.
- Cherie. A. & Y. Berhane. 2012. Peer Pressure Is the Prime Driver of Risky Sexual Behaviours Among
- School Adolescents in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/wja.2012.23021
- published online September 2012 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/wja): accessed on 18/08/2019.
- Cookingham, L. N. & G. L. Ryan. 2015. Impact of Social Media: The Sexual and Social Wellness of
- Adolescent. Journal of Pediatrics and Adolescent Gynecology, (28): 2–5.
- Cohen, L., L. Manion & K. Marrison. 2006. Research Methods in Education (5th Ed.). London: Routledge
- Falmer.
- Craig, S. L., L. B. Mcinroy, L. T. Mccready, D. M. Di Cesare & L. D. Pettaway. 2015. Connecting Without
- Fear: Clinical Implications of the Consumption of Information and Communication Technologies
- by Sexual Minority Youth and Young Adults. Clinical Social Work Journal, 43(2): 159–168.
- Creswell, J. W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th Ed.).
- London: Sage Publications Limited.
- —. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approach (3rd Ed.). Los Angeles:
- SAGE Publications.
- Dehaan, S., L. E. Kuper, J. C. Magee, L. Bigelow & B. S. Mustanski. 2013. The Interplay Between
- Online and Offline Explorations of Identity, Relationships, and Sex: A Mixed-Methods Study with
- LGBT Youth. Journal of Sex Research, 50(5): 421–434.
- Duguay, S. 2016. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Queer Visibility Through Selfies: Comparing Platform
- Mediators Across Ruby Rose’s Instagram and Vine Presence. Social Media+ Society, 2(2): 891–907.
- Dwyer, T., S. Kulasingam, K. M. Kamm, D. Chinunje, R. Malamsha, S. Mawji & C. Majinge. 2019.
- Risk-Taking Behaviours and Sexual Violence Among Secondary School Students in Tanzania.
- Journal of Community Health, 44: 749–755. doi:10.1007/S10900–019–00673–2.
- Gruber, E & J.W Gruber. 2000. Adolescent Sexuality and the Media. Western Journal of Medicine,
- (3): 210–214.
- Ibrahim, L. 2012. Social Media and Its Influence on Students’ Performance. Jamb News, 3(21): 4–5.
- Jeckoniah J.N., D. Paul. 2015. Assess to Social Media and Sexual Behaviour Among Adolescents: A
- Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Morogoro, Tanzania. International Journal of Education and
- Research, 3(1): 4–6.
- Johnson, R. B. & L. A. Turner. 2003. Data Collection Strategies in Mixed Methods Research. in A.
- Tashakkori, and C. Teddlie (Eds.): Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioural Research
- (pp. 297–319). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Kirby, D. 2001. Emerging Answers: New Research Findings on Programme Reducing Teenage Pregnancy.
- Washington D.C: National Campaign to Prevent Teenage Pregnancy. 2001.
- —. 2002. The Impact of Schools and School Programmes Upon Adolescent Sexual Behaviour. The
- Journal of Sex Research, 39: 27–33.
- Kirschner, P. A. & A. C. Karpinski. 2010. Facebook and Academic Performance. Computers in Human
- Behaviour, 26: 1237–1245.
- Maeve, O. 2014. History of Science and History of Translation: Disciplinary Commensurably.
- Translator, 20(1): 9–25.
- Mkumbo, K. A. K. 2014. Students Attitudes towards School Based Sex and Relationship Education
- in Tanzania. Heath Education Journal, 72(6): 642–656.
- —. 2008. An Exploration of Psychosocial Factors Affecting the Development and Delivery of School
- Based Sex and Relationships Education in Tanzania. Doctoral thesis, University of Southampton.
- Mkumbo, K. & F. D. Tungaraza. 2007. Parents’ Views and Attitudes Toward School-based Sex and
- Relationship Education in Rural and Urban Tanzania. Papers of Education and Development, 27: 171–18.
- Mitchell, K. J., M. L. Ybarra, J. D. Korchmaros, J. G. Kosciw. 2014. Accessing Sexual Health
- Information Online: Use, Motivations and Consequences for Youth with Different Sexual
- Orientations. Health Education Research, 29(1): 147–157.
- Mlyakado, B. P. & J. C.-M. Li. 2019. Sexual Exploitation of Adolescent Students in Tanzania:
- Implication for Social Services. International Social Work, 62(3): 1104–1116. doi:10.
- /0020872818774111.
- Oye, N. D., A. H. Mahamat & N. Z. Rahim. 2012. Model of Perceived Influence of Academic Performance
- Using Social Networking. International Journal of Computers and Technology, 2(2): 24–29.
- Nagaddya, R., S. Kiconco, A. Komuhangi, P. Akugizibwe, C. Atuhairwe. 2017. Assessing the Influence
- of Social Networking Material on Adolescents’ Sexual Behaviour in Kampala. Journal of Education
- and Practice, 15(8): 167–193.
- Ndaku, A. J. 2013. Impact of Social Media on the Students’ Academic Performance in Ghana.
- Networking, 18(5): 275–285.
- No Promo Homo Laws. 2016. Gay Lesbian & Straight Education Network (GLSEN). Retrieved from
- http://www.glsen.org/learn/policy/issues/nopromohomo.google scholar.
- O'Keeffe, G.S. & K. Clarke-Pearson. 2011. Council on Communications and Media: The Impact of
- Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and Families. Paediatrics 11(17): 127: 800.
- Owens, E.W., R.J. Behun, J.C. Manning & R.C. Reid. 2012. The Impact of Internet Pornography on
- Adolescents: Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 19(1–2): 99 –122.
- Patton, M. 2002. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
- Perrin, A. 2015: October 8. Social Media Usage: 2005–2015. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from
- http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/10/08/2015/social-networking-usage-2005–2015/.
- Ryan, G.L. & L.M. Cookingham. 2015. Impact of Social Media on the Sexual and Social Wellness of
- Adolescents. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 28: 2–5.
- Ruma, M. M. 2009. Knowledge and Awareness on HIV/AIDS Among Senior Secondary Schools
- Students in Katsina Nigeria. Journal of Pure and Applied Science, 2(2): 121 -126.
- Rweyemamu, D. K. 2007. Negotiating Adolescent Sexual Values in the Urban Areas the Case of Dar
- es Salaam. PhD thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
- Schifter, J. & J. Madrigal. 2000. Sexual Construction of Latino Youth: Implication of the Spread of HIV and
- AIDS. The Haworth Press, Inc.
- Shuby, K. 2004. Sexual and Reproductive Health Need of Young People: A Study Examining the Fit
- Between Need and Current Programming Responses in India. PhD thesis, University of Bielefeld,
- India.
- Tanton, C., K.G. Jones, W. Macdowell, S. Clifton, K.R. Mitchell, J. Datta & R. Lewis. 2015. Pattern
- and Trends in Sources of Information About Sex Among Young People in Britain: Evidence from
- Three National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles. BMJ Open 5: E007834. http://bmjopen.
- bmj.com/content5/3.
- Bureau of Statistics Tanzania. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey
- Retrieved from https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/sr233/sr233.pdf.
- Temple, J. R., J. A. Paul, P. Van Den Berg. 2012. Teen Sexting and Its Association with Sexual
- Behaviours. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 2012: 166:828.
- United Nation Population Fund (UNFPA). 2015. The Evaluation of Comprehensive Sexuality Education
- Programs, A Focus on the Gender and Empowerment Outcomes. New York.
- —. 2013. Adolescent Pregnancy: A Review of the Evidence. New York: UNFPA.
- —. 2013. Motherhood in Childhood: Facing the Challenge of Adolescent Pregnancy. Retrieved from
- http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/en-swop2013–final.pdf.
- Senn, T. E. & M. P. Carey. 2012. Age of Partner at First Adolescent Intercourse and Adult Sexual Risk
- Behaviour Among Women. Journal of Women’s Health, 20: 61.
- Udoh, N.A. &. C.C. Okoro. 2015. Learning Sexuality from the Media—Insights from a Survey of
- Nigerian University Adolescents for Sex Education. American Journal of Psychology and Behavioural
- Sciences, 2(3): 63–70.
- United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2005. A Science Syllabus for Primary Schools Standard 1–7. Dar es
- Salaam: Ministry of Education and Culture.
- Wamoyi, J. & D. Wight. 2014. ‘Mum Never Loved Me.’ How Structural Factors Influence Adolescent
- Sexual and Reproductive Health Through Parent–Child Connectedness: A Qualitative Study in
- Rural Tanzania. African Journal of AIDS Research, 13(2): 169–178.
- Weeks, J. 1995. Invented Moralities Sexual Values in an Age of Uncertainty. New York: Columbia
- University Press.
- World Health Organisation (WHO). 2007. Adolescent Pregnancy: Unmet Needs and Undone Deeds.
- Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241595650_eng.pdf.
- —. 2012. Making Health Services Adolescent Friendly: Developing National Quality Standards for
- Adolescent-Friendly Health Services. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/ 10665/
- /1/ 9789241503594_eng.pdf.
- World Health Organisation (WHO). 2020. Global Health Observatory (GHO) Data.
- Zillmann, D. 2000. Influence of Unrestrained Access to Erotica on Adolescents' and Young Adults'
- Dispositions Toward Sexuality. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27(2): 41
##journal.references##
Adegboyega, L.O. 2019. Influence of Social Media on Sexual Behaviour of Youth in Kwara State Nigeria:
Implications for Counselling Practice. Canadian Journal of Family and Youth, 11(1): 85–103.
Abdullahi, A. A., I. B. Adekeye, K. O. Mahmoud & S. J. Akor. 2013. Sexual and Health Preventive Behaviour
of Secondary School Students in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. Center Point Journal, 17: 61–80.
Anderson, N., S. Paredes-Solis, Milne, K. Omer, N. Markkanen, D. Laetsang & A. Corkcroft. 2012.
Prevalence and Risk Factors for Forced or Coerced Sex Among School Going Youth: National
Cross-Sectional Studies in 10 Southern African Countries in 2003 and 2007. BMJ Open,
(E000754}. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2001– 000754.
Asrat, A. 2014. Assessment of Sexual Risk Behaviours of In-school Youth: Effect of Living
Arrangement of Students; West Gojam Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. American Journal
of Health Research. 2(2): 78–83.
Bandura, A. 1994. Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication. in J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.):
Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research (pp. 61–90). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Best, J. W. & Khan, J. V. 2006. Research in Education (10th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Bilinga M. J. 2017. Sex-Based Analysis of Students’ Views on Integrating Sexuality Education in
Higher Leaning Institutions in Tanzania: The Case of Dar es Salaam University College of
Education. Journal of Education, Humanities and Sciences, 6(2): 68–80.
Bilinga, M. J. 2012. Effectiveness of School Based - Sexuality Education in Promoting Knowledge and
Skills Relating to Prevention of Pregnancies and HIV in Tanzania. Unpublished, PhD thesis,
University of Dar es Salaam.
Brown, D.J. 2002. Mass Media Influence on Sexuality. Journal of Sex Research. 39(1): 42–45.
—. 2000. Adolescents' Sexual Media Diets. J Adolesc Health, 27(2): 35.
Bryant, C. M. & M. Chavious. 2014. Assessing the Impact of Social Media on the Risky Sexual
Behaviours of College Students, Tuskegee University, USA.
Cherie. A. & Y. Berhane. 2012. Peer Pressure Is the Prime Driver of Risky Sexual Behaviours Among
School Adolescents in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/wja.2012.23021
published online September 2012 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/wja): accessed on 18/08/2019.
Cookingham, L. N. & G. L. Ryan. 2015. Impact of Social Media: The Sexual and Social Wellness of
Adolescent. Journal of Pediatrics and Adolescent Gynecology, (28): 2–5.
Cohen, L., L. Manion & K. Marrison. 2006. Research Methods in Education (5th Ed.). London: Routledge
Falmer.
Craig, S. L., L. B. Mcinroy, L. T. Mccready, D. M. Di Cesare & L. D. Pettaway. 2015. Connecting Without
Fear: Clinical Implications of the Consumption of Information and Communication Technologies
by Sexual Minority Youth and Young Adults. Clinical Social Work Journal, 43(2): 159–168.
Creswell, J. W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th Ed.).
London: Sage Publications Limited.
—. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approach (3rd Ed.). Los Angeles:
SAGE Publications.
Dehaan, S., L. E. Kuper, J. C. Magee, L. Bigelow & B. S. Mustanski. 2013. The Interplay Between
Online and Offline Explorations of Identity, Relationships, and Sex: A Mixed-Methods Study with
LGBT Youth. Journal of Sex Research, 50(5): 421–434.
Duguay, S. 2016. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Queer Visibility Through Selfies: Comparing Platform
Mediators Across Ruby Rose’s Instagram and Vine Presence. Social Media+ Society, 2(2): 891–907.
Dwyer, T., S. Kulasingam, K. M. Kamm, D. Chinunje, R. Malamsha, S. Mawji & C. Majinge. 2019.
Risk-Taking Behaviours and Sexual Violence Among Secondary School Students in Tanzania.
Journal of Community Health, 44: 749–755. doi:10.1007/S10900–019–00673–2.
Gruber, E & J.W Gruber. 2000. Adolescent Sexuality and the Media. Western Journal of Medicine,
(3): 210–214.
Ibrahim, L. 2012. Social Media and Its Influence on Students’ Performance. Jamb News, 3(21): 4–5.
Jeckoniah J.N., D. Paul. 2015. Assess to Social Media and Sexual Behaviour Among Adolescents: A
Case of Selected Secondary Schools in Morogoro, Tanzania. International Journal of Education and
Research, 3(1): 4–6.
Johnson, R. B. & L. A. Turner. 2003. Data Collection Strategies in Mixed Methods Research. in A.
Tashakkori, and C. Teddlie (Eds.): Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioural Research
(pp. 297–319). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kirby, D. 2001. Emerging Answers: New Research Findings on Programme Reducing Teenage Pregnancy.
Washington D.C: National Campaign to Prevent Teenage Pregnancy. 2001.
—. 2002. The Impact of Schools and School Programmes Upon Adolescent Sexual Behaviour. The
Journal of Sex Research, 39: 27–33.
Kirschner, P. A. & A. C. Karpinski. 2010. Facebook and Academic Performance. Computers in Human
Behaviour, 26: 1237–1245.
Maeve, O. 2014. History of Science and History of Translation: Disciplinary Commensurably.
Translator, 20(1): 9–25.
Mkumbo, K. A. K. 2014. Students Attitudes towards School Based Sex and Relationship Education
in Tanzania. Heath Education Journal, 72(6): 642–656.
—. 2008. An Exploration of Psychosocial Factors Affecting the Development and Delivery of School
Based Sex and Relationships Education in Tanzania. Doctoral thesis, University of Southampton.
Mkumbo, K. & F. D. Tungaraza. 2007. Parents’ Views and Attitudes Toward School-based Sex and
Relationship Education in Rural and Urban Tanzania. Papers of Education and Development, 27: 171–18.
Mitchell, K. J., M. L. Ybarra, J. D. Korchmaros, J. G. Kosciw. 2014. Accessing Sexual Health
Information Online: Use, Motivations and Consequences for Youth with Different Sexual
Orientations. Health Education Research, 29(1): 147–157.
Mlyakado, B. P. & J. C.-M. Li. 2019. Sexual Exploitation of Adolescent Students in Tanzania:
Implication for Social Services. International Social Work, 62(3): 1104–1116. doi:10.
/0020872818774111.
Oye, N. D., A. H. Mahamat & N. Z. Rahim. 2012. Model of Perceived Influence of Academic Performance
Using Social Networking. International Journal of Computers and Technology, 2(2): 24–29.
Nagaddya, R., S. Kiconco, A. Komuhangi, P. Akugizibwe, C. Atuhairwe. 2017. Assessing the Influence
of Social Networking Material on Adolescents’ Sexual Behaviour in Kampala. Journal of Education
and Practice, 15(8): 167–193.
Ndaku, A. J. 2013. Impact of Social Media on the Students’ Academic Performance in Ghana.
Networking, 18(5): 275–285.
No Promo Homo Laws. 2016. Gay Lesbian & Straight Education Network (GLSEN). Retrieved from
http://www.glsen.org/learn/policy/issues/nopromohomo.google scholar.
O'Keeffe, G.S. & K. Clarke-Pearson. 2011. Council on Communications and Media: The Impact of
Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and Families. Paediatrics 11(17): 127: 800.
Owens, E.W., R.J. Behun, J.C. Manning & R.C. Reid. 2012. The Impact of Internet Pornography on
Adolescents: Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 19(1–2): 99 –122.
Patton, M. 2002. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Perrin, A. 2015: October 8. Social Media Usage: 2005–2015. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from
http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/10/08/2015/social-networking-usage-2005–2015/.
Ryan, G.L. & L.M. Cookingham. 2015. Impact of Social Media on the Sexual and Social Wellness of
Adolescents. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 28: 2–5.
Ruma, M. M. 2009. Knowledge and Awareness on HIV/AIDS Among Senior Secondary Schools
Students in Katsina Nigeria. Journal of Pure and Applied Science, 2(2): 121 -126.
Rweyemamu, D. K. 2007. Negotiating Adolescent Sexual Values in the Urban Areas the Case of Dar
es Salaam. PhD thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Schifter, J. & J. Madrigal. 2000. Sexual Construction of Latino Youth: Implication of the Spread of HIV and
AIDS. The Haworth Press, Inc.
Shuby, K. 2004. Sexual and Reproductive Health Need of Young People: A Study Examining the Fit
Between Need and Current Programming Responses in India. PhD thesis, University of Bielefeld,
India.
Tanton, C., K.G. Jones, W. Macdowell, S. Clifton, K.R. Mitchell, J. Datta & R. Lewis. 2015. Pattern
and Trends in Sources of Information About Sex Among Young People in Britain: Evidence from
Three National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles. BMJ Open 5: E007834. http://bmjopen.
bmj.com/content5/3.
Bureau of Statistics Tanzania. 2016. Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey
Retrieved from https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/sr233/sr233.pdf.
Temple, J. R., J. A. Paul, P. Van Den Berg. 2012. Teen Sexting and Its Association with Sexual
Behaviours. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 2012: 166:828.
United Nation Population Fund (UNFPA). 2015. The Evaluation of Comprehensive Sexuality Education
Programs, A Focus on the Gender and Empowerment Outcomes. New York.
—. 2013. Adolescent Pregnancy: A Review of the Evidence. New York: UNFPA.
—. 2013. Motherhood in Childhood: Facing the Challenge of Adolescent Pregnancy. Retrieved from
http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/en-swop2013–final.pdf.
Senn, T. E. & M. P. Carey. 2012. Age of Partner at First Adolescent Intercourse and Adult Sexual Risk
Behaviour Among Women. Journal of Women’s Health, 20: 61.
Udoh, N.A. &. C.C. Okoro. 2015. Learning Sexuality from the Media—Insights from a Survey of
Nigerian University Adolescents for Sex Education. American Journal of Psychology and Behavioural
Sciences, 2(3): 63–70.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2005. A Science Syllabus for Primary Schools Standard 1–7. Dar es
Salaam: Ministry of Education and Culture.
Wamoyi, J. & D. Wight. 2014. ‘Mum Never Loved Me.’ How Structural Factors Influence Adolescent
Sexual and Reproductive Health Through Parent–Child Connectedness: A Qualitative Study in
Rural Tanzania. African Journal of AIDS Research, 13(2): 169–178.
Weeks, J. 1995. Invented Moralities Sexual Values in an Age of Uncertainty. New York: Columbia
University Press.
World Health Organisation (WHO). 2007. Adolescent Pregnancy: Unmet Needs and Undone Deeds.
Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241595650_eng.pdf.
—. 2012. Making Health Services Adolescent Friendly: Developing National Quality Standards for
Adolescent-Friendly Health Services. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/ 10665/
/1/ 9789241503594_eng.pdf.
World Health Organisation (WHO). 2020. Global Health Observatory (GHO) Data.
Zillmann, D. 2000. Influence of Unrestrained Access to Erotica on Adolescents' and Young Adults'
Dispositions Toward Sexuality. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27(2): 41