Gender Inequalities in Pedagogical Classroom Practice: What Influence Do Teachers Make?
Corresponding Author(s) : Rehema Japhet Mwakabenga
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
Vol. 10 No. 3 (2021): Special Issue Gender II
Abstract
Most Sub-Saharan African countries have made great efforts towards promoting gender
equality in gaining access to, and completing, education cycles. Regardless of such efforts,
less attention has been paid to gender-biased classroom practices that affect students’
effective learning. This disparity calls for nuanced understanding of teachers’ classroom
practices that perpetuate gender inequality with a view of devising mechanisms for
improvement. This paper specifically analyses patterns of gender inequalities caused by
teachers in the classroom through their knowledge, beliefs and behaviours. Data were
obtained from a review of 55 empirical and theoretical publications on gender in
education, of which 26 articles and research reports were scrutinised. The findings
revealed that there were several patterns through which teachers promote gender
inequalities during teaching, whereas making gender-biased attributions to students was
found to be the most typical one. Other patterns were related to teacher-students
interactions that favour one’s sex. It was also found that while some teachers promoted
gender inequalities intentionally, others did it unconsciously. Thus, it would seem that
classroom-based gender practices were mainly emanating from teachers’ preconceptions
and limited knowledge in gender matters. Based on this review, recommendations are
made to teachers, researchers, and policy makers in Tanzania to address gender
inequalities through improved classroom pedagogical practices, and professional
development for in-service and pre-service teachers.
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Ahmed, M., M. Ambreen & I. Hussain. 2018. Gender Differentials Among Teachers' Classroom
- Management Strategies in Pakistani Context. Journal of Education and Educational Development,
- (2): 178–193.
- Alan, S., S. Ertac & I. Mumcu. 2018. Gender Stereotypes in the Classroom and Effects on
- Achievement. Review of Economics and Statistics, 100(5): 876–890.
- Allana, A., N. Asad & Y. Sherali. 2010. Gender in Academic Settings: Role of Teachers. International
- Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 1(4): 343.
- Amini, M. & P. Birjandi. 2012. Gender Bias in the Iranian High School EFL Textbooks. English
- Language Teaching, 5(2): 134–147.
- Bassi, M., R. L. Blumberg & M. Mateo Díaz. 2016. Under the "Cloak of Invisibility": Gender Bias in
- Teaching Practices and Learning Outcomes (No. IDB-WP-696). IDB Working Paper Series.
- Berekashvili, N. 2012. The Role of Gender-Biased Perceptions in Teacher-Student Interaction.
- Psychology of Language and Communication, 16(1): 39–51.
- Bursuc, G. C. 2013. Achieving Gender Equality in Teaching and Learning: Identifying Problems and
- Searching for Solutions. Linguaculture. 2013(2): 64–73.
- Campbell, T. 2015. Stereotyped at Seven? Biases in Teacher Judgement of Pupils’ Ability and
- Attainment. Journal of Social Policy, 44:3: pp 517–547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ s00472794
- Carlana, M. 2019. Implicit Stereotypes: Evidence from Teachers’ Gender Bias. The Quarterly Journal
- of Economics, 134(3): 1163–1224.
- Chikunda, C. 2014. Identifying Tensions Around Gender-Responsive Curriculum Practices in Science
- Teacher Education in Zimbabwe: An Activity Theory Analysis. African Journal of Research in
- Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(3): 264–275.
- Dee, T. S. 2006. The Why Chromosome: How a Teacher's Gender Affects Boys and Girls. Education
- Next, 6(4): 68–76.
- Dee, T. & S. Gershenson. 2017. Unconscious Bias in the Classroom: Evidence and Opportunities.
- Stanford Center for Education Policy Analysis.
- Dorji, T. 2020. Gender Responsive Pedagogy Awareness and Practices: A Case Study of a Higher
- Secondary School Under Thimphu Thromde, Bhutan. International Journal of Linguistics and
- Translation Studies, 1(2): 100–111.
- Espinoza, P., Arêas Da Luz Fontes, A.B. & Arms-Chavez, C.J. Attributional Gender Bias: Teachers’
- Ability and Effort Explanations for Students’ Math Performance. Socpsycholeduc, 17: 105–
- (2014).https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218–013–9226–6.
- Ezekwe, F. A & U. V. Enweani. 2019. Gender Inequality in Education, ICT, Industry and Employment:
- The Socio-Economic Effects. Effects. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1–25.
- Gong, J., Y. Lu & H. Song. 2018. The Effect of Teacher Gender on Students’ Academic and
- Noncognitive Outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(3): 743–778.
- Gray, C. & H. Leith. 2004. Perpetuating Gender Stereotypes in the Classroom: A Teacher Perspective.
- Educational Studies, 30(1): 3–17.
- Ifegbesan, A. 2010. Gender-Stereotypes Belief and Practices in the Classroom: The Nigerian PostPrimary School Teachers. Global Journal of Human Social Science, 10(4): 29–38.
- Jahangir, A. & N. Mankani. 2016. Documentation of Gender Responsive Pedagogy as a Best Practice by the
- Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE). Retrieved from file:///c:/users/rehema/
- downloads/ fawecasestudy_final.pdf.
- Kahamba, J. S., F. A. Massawe & E. S. Kira. 2017. Awareness and Practice of Gender Responsive
- Pedagogy in Higher Learning Institutions: The Case of Sokoine University of Agriculture,
- Tanzania. Journal of Education, Humanities and Sciences, Volume 6(2): 2017: 1–16.
- Karoui, K. & R. Feki. 2018. The Impacts of Gender Inequality in Education on Economic Growth in
- Tunisia: An Empirical Analysis. Quality & Quantity, 52(3): 1265–1273.
- Klasen, S. & F. Lamanna. 2009. The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on
- Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries. Feminist Economics, 15(3): 91–132.
- Lavy, V. & E. Sand. 2015. on the Origins of Gender Human Capital Gaps: Short and Long Term
- Consequences of Teachers’ Stereotypical Biases (No. W20909). National Bureau of Economic
- Research.
- Lee, J. 2015. Chinese Proverbs: How Are Women and Men Represented? Multidisciplinary Journal of
- Gender Studies, 4(1): 559–585. doi: 10.4471/generos.2015.47.
- Li, J., R. Mclellan & K. Forbes. 2021. Investigating EFL Teachers’ Gender-Stereotypical Beliefs About
- Learners: A Mixed-Methods Study. Cambridge Journal of Education, 51(1): 19–44.
- Lubaale, G. 2020. Gender Imbalances Amongst in Kyambogo University of Uganda and Development
- Implications. Online Submission, 7(1): 7–14.
- Martin, B. 2011. Children at Play: Learning Gender in the Early Years. Trentham Books Ltd. Westview
- House 734 London Road: Staffordshire, ST4 5NP,UK.
- Masanja, V.G. 2010. Increasing Women’s Participation in Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education
- and Employment in Africa. Paper Presented at the United.
- Nations Division for the Advancement of Women and United Nations Educational, Scientific and
- Cultural Organization Expert Group Meeting: Gender, Science, Technology, Paris, France, 28
- September – 1 October.
- Mayeza, E. & D. Bhana. 2017. Addressing Gender Violence Among Children in the Early Years of
- Schooling: Insights from Teachers in a South African Primary School. International Studies in
- Sociology of Education, 26(4): 408–425.
- Medel, P. & V. Pournaghshband. 2017: March. Eliminating Gender Bias in Computer Science
- Education Materials. in Proceedings of the 2017 ACM SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer
- Science Education (pp. 411–416).
- Mogalakwe, M. 2006. The Use of Documentary Research Methods in Social Research. African
- Sociological Review/Revue Africaine De Sociologie, 10(1): 221–230.
- Ngware, M. W., J. Ciera, B. A. Abuya, M. Oketch & M. Mutisya. 2012. What Explains Gender Gaps in
- Maths Achievement in Primary Schools in Kenya? London Review of Education, 10(1): 55–73.
- Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD). 2015): the ABC of Gender Equality
- in Education: Aptitude, Behaviour, Confidence, Program for International Student Assessment (PISA):
- OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264229945–en.
- Paechter, C. 2006. Masculine Femininities/Feminine Masculinities: Power, Identities and Gender.
- Gender and Education, 18(3): 253–263.
- Priess, H. A. & J. S. Hyde. 2010. Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences. in Handbook of
- Gender Research in Psychology (pp. 297–316). Springer, New York, NY.
- Retelsdorf, J., K. Schwartz & F. Asbrock. 2015. “Michael Can’t Read!” Teachers’ Gender Stereotypes
- and Boys’ Reading Self-Concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1): 186.
- Rwezaula, A. 2018. Factors Influencing Gender Inequality in Secondary Education in Temeke Municipal,
- Tanzania (Doctoral Dissertation): the Open University of Tanzania.
- Sanders, J. S., J. Koch & J. Urso. 1997. Gender Equity Right from the Start [Vol 1]: Instructional Activities
- for Teacher Educators in Mathematics, Science and Technology. L. Erlbaum.
- Schmader, T. 2012. Stereotype Threat: Theory, Process, and Application. Oxford: University Press.
- Sheehan, K. 2012. Does Gender Inequality in Education Affect Educational Outcomes? University of
- Connecticut. Retrieved from https://opencommons.uconn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=
- & context=srhonors_theses.
- Smith, J. G., S. Tanner, C. Postles & H. O’Reilly. 2012. Because I Am a Girl: Progress and Obstacles to
- Girls Education in Africa. Plan International; South Africa.
- Sutherland-Addy, E. 2008. Gender Equity in Junior and Senior Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa.
- Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Thomas, M. A. & A. Rugambwa. 2013. Gendered Aspects of Classroom Practice. in Teaching in Tension
- (pp. 133–148). Brill Sense.
- Thompson, A. 2003. Caring in Context: Four Feminist Theories on Gender and Education. Curriculum
- Inquiry, 33(1): 9–65.
- Tshabangu, I. & A. Msafiri. 2013. Quality Education in Tanzania: Perceptions on Global Challenges
- and Local Needs. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 3(3): 800–813.
- United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2005. Guidelines for
- Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All. UNESCO.
- ur Rahman, S., I. S. Chaudhry & F. Farooq. 2018. Gender Inequality in Education and Household
- Poverty in Pakistan: A Case of Multan District. Review of Economics and Development Studies, 4(1):
- –126.
- United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2008. National Strategy for Gender Development. Dar es Salaam: URT.
- United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2015). UNESCO
- Country Programming Document 2011–2015. Dar es Salaam: United Republic of Tanzania.
- United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2020. Gender and Education.
- Retrieved from https://data.unicef.org/topic/gender/gender-disparities-in-education/.
- World Bank. 2017. Educating Girls, Ending Child Marriage. Retrieved from https://www. worldbank.
- org/en/news/immersive-story/2017/08/22/educating-girls-ending-child-marriage.
- Zacharia, L. 2014. Factors Causing Gender Inequality in Education in Tanzania: A Case of Korogwe District
- Secondary Schools (Doctoral Dissertation): Open University of Tanzania.
- Zilimu, J.A. 2014. Exploring the Gender Gap in Tanzanian Secondary School Mathematics Classrooms.
- (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Ill
References
Ahmed, M., M. Ambreen & I. Hussain. 2018. Gender Differentials Among Teachers' Classroom
Management Strategies in Pakistani Context. Journal of Education and Educational Development,
(2): 178–193.
Alan, S., S. Ertac & I. Mumcu. 2018. Gender Stereotypes in the Classroom and Effects on
Achievement. Review of Economics and Statistics, 100(5): 876–890.
Allana, A., N. Asad & Y. Sherali. 2010. Gender in Academic Settings: Role of Teachers. International
Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 1(4): 343.
Amini, M. & P. Birjandi. 2012. Gender Bias in the Iranian High School EFL Textbooks. English
Language Teaching, 5(2): 134–147.
Bassi, M., R. L. Blumberg & M. Mateo Díaz. 2016. Under the "Cloak of Invisibility": Gender Bias in
Teaching Practices and Learning Outcomes (No. IDB-WP-696). IDB Working Paper Series.
Berekashvili, N. 2012. The Role of Gender-Biased Perceptions in Teacher-Student Interaction.
Psychology of Language and Communication, 16(1): 39–51.
Bursuc, G. C. 2013. Achieving Gender Equality in Teaching and Learning: Identifying Problems and
Searching for Solutions. Linguaculture. 2013(2): 64–73.
Campbell, T. 2015. Stereotyped at Seven? Biases in Teacher Judgement of Pupils’ Ability and
Attainment. Journal of Social Policy, 44:3: pp 517–547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ s00472794
Carlana, M. 2019. Implicit Stereotypes: Evidence from Teachers’ Gender Bias. The Quarterly Journal
of Economics, 134(3): 1163–1224.
Chikunda, C. 2014. Identifying Tensions Around Gender-Responsive Curriculum Practices in Science
Teacher Education in Zimbabwe: An Activity Theory Analysis. African Journal of Research in
Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(3): 264–275.
Dee, T. S. 2006. The Why Chromosome: How a Teacher's Gender Affects Boys and Girls. Education
Next, 6(4): 68–76.
Dee, T. & S. Gershenson. 2017. Unconscious Bias in the Classroom: Evidence and Opportunities.
Stanford Center for Education Policy Analysis.
Dorji, T. 2020. Gender Responsive Pedagogy Awareness and Practices: A Case Study of a Higher
Secondary School Under Thimphu Thromde, Bhutan. International Journal of Linguistics and
Translation Studies, 1(2): 100–111.
Espinoza, P., Arêas Da Luz Fontes, A.B. & Arms-Chavez, C.J. Attributional Gender Bias: Teachers’
Ability and Effort Explanations for Students’ Math Performance. Socpsycholeduc, 17: 105–
(2014).https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218–013–9226–6.
Ezekwe, F. A & U. V. Enweani. 2019. Gender Inequality in Education, ICT, Industry and Employment:
The Socio-Economic Effects. Effects. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1–25.
Gong, J., Y. Lu & H. Song. 2018. The Effect of Teacher Gender on Students’ Academic and
Noncognitive Outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(3): 743–778.
Gray, C. & H. Leith. 2004. Perpetuating Gender Stereotypes in the Classroom: A Teacher Perspective.
Educational Studies, 30(1): 3–17.
Ifegbesan, A. 2010. Gender-Stereotypes Belief and Practices in the Classroom: The Nigerian PostPrimary School Teachers. Global Journal of Human Social Science, 10(4): 29–38.
Jahangir, A. & N. Mankani. 2016. Documentation of Gender Responsive Pedagogy as a Best Practice by the
Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE). Retrieved from file:///c:/users/rehema/
downloads/ fawecasestudy_final.pdf.
Kahamba, J. S., F. A. Massawe & E. S. Kira. 2017. Awareness and Practice of Gender Responsive
Pedagogy in Higher Learning Institutions: The Case of Sokoine University of Agriculture,
Tanzania. Journal of Education, Humanities and Sciences, Volume 6(2): 2017: 1–16.
Karoui, K. & R. Feki. 2018. The Impacts of Gender Inequality in Education on Economic Growth in
Tunisia: An Empirical Analysis. Quality & Quantity, 52(3): 1265–1273.
Klasen, S. & F. Lamanna. 2009. The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on
Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries. Feminist Economics, 15(3): 91–132.
Lavy, V. & E. Sand. 2015. on the Origins of Gender Human Capital Gaps: Short and Long Term
Consequences of Teachers’ Stereotypical Biases (No. W20909). National Bureau of Economic
Research.
Lee, J. 2015. Chinese Proverbs: How Are Women and Men Represented? Multidisciplinary Journal of
Gender Studies, 4(1): 559–585. doi: 10.4471/generos.2015.47.
Li, J., R. Mclellan & K. Forbes. 2021. Investigating EFL Teachers’ Gender-Stereotypical Beliefs About
Learners: A Mixed-Methods Study. Cambridge Journal of Education, 51(1): 19–44.
Lubaale, G. 2020. Gender Imbalances Amongst in Kyambogo University of Uganda and Development
Implications. Online Submission, 7(1): 7–14.
Martin, B. 2011. Children at Play: Learning Gender in the Early Years. Trentham Books Ltd. Westview
House 734 London Road: Staffordshire, ST4 5NP,UK.
Masanja, V.G. 2010. Increasing Women’s Participation in Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education
and Employment in Africa. Paper Presented at the United.
Nations Division for the Advancement of Women and United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization Expert Group Meeting: Gender, Science, Technology, Paris, France, 28
September – 1 October.
Mayeza, E. & D. Bhana. 2017. Addressing Gender Violence Among Children in the Early Years of
Schooling: Insights from Teachers in a South African Primary School. International Studies in
Sociology of Education, 26(4): 408–425.
Medel, P. & V. Pournaghshband. 2017: March. Eliminating Gender Bias in Computer Science
Education Materials. in Proceedings of the 2017 ACM SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer
Science Education (pp. 411–416).
Mogalakwe, M. 2006. The Use of Documentary Research Methods in Social Research. African
Sociological Review/Revue Africaine De Sociologie, 10(1): 221–230.
Ngware, M. W., J. Ciera, B. A. Abuya, M. Oketch & M. Mutisya. 2012. What Explains Gender Gaps in
Maths Achievement in Primary Schools in Kenya? London Review of Education, 10(1): 55–73.
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD). 2015): the ABC of Gender Equality
in Education: Aptitude, Behaviour, Confidence, Program for International Student Assessment (PISA):
OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264229945–en.
Paechter, C. 2006. Masculine Femininities/Feminine Masculinities: Power, Identities and Gender.
Gender and Education, 18(3): 253–263.
Priess, H. A. & J. S. Hyde. 2010. Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences. in Handbook of
Gender Research in Psychology (pp. 297–316). Springer, New York, NY.
Retelsdorf, J., K. Schwartz & F. Asbrock. 2015. “Michael Can’t Read!” Teachers’ Gender Stereotypes
and Boys’ Reading Self-Concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1): 186.
Rwezaula, A. 2018. Factors Influencing Gender Inequality in Secondary Education in Temeke Municipal,
Tanzania (Doctoral Dissertation): the Open University of Tanzania.
Sanders, J. S., J. Koch & J. Urso. 1997. Gender Equity Right from the Start [Vol 1]: Instructional Activities
for Teacher Educators in Mathematics, Science and Technology. L. Erlbaum.
Schmader, T. 2012. Stereotype Threat: Theory, Process, and Application. Oxford: University Press.
Sheehan, K. 2012. Does Gender Inequality in Education Affect Educational Outcomes? University of
Connecticut. Retrieved from https://opencommons.uconn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=
& context=srhonors_theses.
Smith, J. G., S. Tanner, C. Postles & H. O’Reilly. 2012. Because I Am a Girl: Progress and Obstacles to
Girls Education in Africa. Plan International; South Africa.
Sutherland-Addy, E. 2008. Gender Equity in Junior and Senior Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Thomas, M. A. & A. Rugambwa. 2013. Gendered Aspects of Classroom Practice. in Teaching in Tension
(pp. 133–148). Brill Sense.
Thompson, A. 2003. Caring in Context: Four Feminist Theories on Gender and Education. Curriculum
Inquiry, 33(1): 9–65.
Tshabangu, I. & A. Msafiri. 2013. Quality Education in Tanzania: Perceptions on Global Challenges
and Local Needs. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 3(3): 800–813.
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2005. Guidelines for
Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All. UNESCO.
ur Rahman, S., I. S. Chaudhry & F. Farooq. 2018. Gender Inequality in Education and Household
Poverty in Pakistan: A Case of Multan District. Review of Economics and Development Studies, 4(1):
–126.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2008. National Strategy for Gender Development. Dar es Salaam: URT.
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2015). UNESCO
Country Programming Document 2011–2015. Dar es Salaam: United Republic of Tanzania.
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2020. Gender and Education.
Retrieved from https://data.unicef.org/topic/gender/gender-disparities-in-education/.
World Bank. 2017. Educating Girls, Ending Child Marriage. Retrieved from https://www. worldbank.
org/en/news/immersive-story/2017/08/22/educating-girls-ending-child-marriage.
Zacharia, L. 2014. Factors Causing Gender Inequality in Education in Tanzania: A Case of Korogwe District
Secondary Schools (Doctoral Dissertation): Open University of Tanzania.
Zilimu, J.A. 2014. Exploring the Gender Gap in Tanzanian Secondary School Mathematics Classrooms.
(Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Ill