The Triple Linguistic Heritage in Tanzania: Opportunities and Challenges
Corresponding Author(s) : Benedictor Lema
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
##issue.vol## 10 ##issue.no## 1 (2021)
##article.abstract##
Colonial history exposes Tanzania to triple linguistic heritage, that has at times plunged
the nation into linguistic confusion. This heritage involves Kiswahili, ethnic community
languages (ECLs) and English. Whereas each of the languages has been limited to some
use through policies, some of the languages have pushed their own way, often breaking
policy boundaries. It is shown in this paper that, firstly, the exclusion of ECLs by postindependence policies has denied the nation important socio-cultural and economic
avenues that could foster rapid social and economic development. Secondly, policies
have not succeeded to strictly confine the three languages to some use. Thirdly, despite
the rigour on English, competence in the language among the population remains
consistently low. Fourthly, sustainable national development can be realized only by
exploiting the triple linguistic heritage already in place in the country.
##submission.howToCite.downloadCitation##
##plugins.generic.citationStyleLanguage.download.ris####plugins.generic.citationStyleLanguage.download.bibtex##
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- African Union (AU). 2006a. The Charter of the African Cultural Renaissance. Addis Ababa: African Union.
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- —. 2006c. Second Decade of Education in Africa 20006–2015. Addis Ababa: African Union.
- Bakawhemama, J. 2009. What is the Difference in Achievement of Learners in Selected Kiswahili and
- English Medium Primary Schools in Tanzania? Master of Education thesis. University of Oslo:
- Institute for Educational Research.
- Baker, C. 2003. Bilingual Education, Multilingual Matters. Toronto: Clarendon, Buffalo.
- Brock-Utne, B. & H.B. Holmarsdottir. 2004. Language Policies and Practices in Tanzania and South
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- In: Decolonization, Globalization: Language-in-Education Policy and Practice.
- Chumbow, B.S. 2008b. La Politique Linguistique de l’Académie Africaine des Langues et la Diversité
- Linguistique. Communication au Colloque Internationale sur la Diversité Linguistique dans les
- Universités de la Francophonie, Yaoundé 2008.
- Criper, C & W.A. Dodd. 1984. Report on the Teaching of the English Language and Its Use As a
- Medium in Education in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: The British Council.
- Crystal, D. 2003. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Fawzi, M.M. 2013. Traditional Medicine in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal
- Plants, Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Vol. 2003, Article ID617459,
- Pages. https: //doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459.
- Fishman, J. 1986. Language Maintenance and Language Shift As a Field of Inquiry, Linguistics, 9: 32–70.
- Gottneid, A.J. (Ed.) 1976. Church and Education in Tanzania. Nairobi: East African Publishing.
- Green, E. 2011. The Political Economy of Nation Formation in Modern Tanzania, Explaining Stability
- in the Face of Diversity. Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 49(2): 223–244.
- Hao, T.T & N.D. Phuong. 2017. World Englishes From a Holistic View and Considerations on English
- Education in Vietnam. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies. doi: 10.25073/2525–2445/vnufs.4207.
- Harmon, D & L. Maffi. 2002, Are Linguistic and Biological Diversity Linked? Conservation Biology in
- Practice, 3,1.
- Joseph, E. 2018. Chagga’s Attitude Towards their Ethnic Community Language. M.A thesis,
- University of Dar es Salaam.
- Kachru, B. B. 1988. Teaching World Englishes. ERIC/CLL News Bulletin, 12(1): 1, 3, 4, 8.
- Kanyoro, M. 1991. The Politics of the English Language in Kenya and Tanzania. In Jenny Cheshire
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- Press, pp. 402–19.
- Languages of Tanzania Project (LoT). 2009. Atlasi ya Lugha za Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Mradi wa
- Lugha za Tanzania, Chuo Kikuu cha Dar es Salaam.
- Le Ha, P. 2008. Teaching English As an International Language: Identity, Resistance and Negotiation,
- Multilingual Matters, Clevedon.
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- Africa and Asia, 2: 163–186.
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- Malekani, A.W. 2005. Problems Affecting the Promotion of Literacy in Tanzania and the Role of
- Library and Information Science (IS) Profession in Alleviating the Situation.
- Matalu, K. 2013. Challenges of Using English Language in the Tanzanian Agricultural Sector in
- Maswa and Bariadi Districts. Master of Arts in (Linguistics) Dissertation, University of Dodoma.
- Mazrui, A. A & A. M. Mazrui. 1995. Swahili State and Society: Political Economy of an African Language.
- London/Nairobi: James Currey; East African Educational.
- Mberia, W. K. 2015. The Place of Indigenous Languages in African Development. International Journal
- of Language and Linguistics 2(5).
- Mekacha, R.O.K. 1993. Is Tanzania Diglossic? The Status and Role of Ethnic Community. Journal of
- Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 14(4): 307–320.
- Mkilifi, A. m. h. 1972. language in society. doi : 10.1017/S004740450000049X.
- Mlekwa, V. M. 1994. Contribution of Literacy Training to Development in the Context of Tanzania:
- Emerging Issues and Research Implications. UTAFITI (New Series) Vo/.1 No.1. 1994.
- Msanjila, Y.P. 2004. The Future of the Kisafwa Language: A Case Study of Ituha Village in Tanzania.
- Journal of Asian and African Studies, 68. 2004.
- Mtallo, G. R & Y. N. Masinde. 2018. The Status of Ethnic Community Language(s) Within the
- Endogamous and Exogamous Families in Urban Centers of Tanzania. Business Education Journal
- (BEJ): II(I): 15 pgs. www.cbe.ac.tz/bej.
- Muzale, H.R.T. 2011. Dictionary of Plant Names and Functions in Haya: With English and Swahili Glosses.
- Languages of Tanzania Project, University of Dar es Salaam.
- Muzale, H.R.T. & J. M. Rugemalira. 2008. Researching and Documenting the Languages of Tanzania.
- Language Documentation and Conservation, 2(1): 68–108.
- —. 2008. University of Dar es Salaam. Language Documentation and Preservation. 2(1): 68–108 http:
- //nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc/.
- National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). 2009. Integrated Labour Force Report.
- Neke, S.M. 2003. English in Tanzania: An Anatomy of Hegemony. PhD thesis, University of Gent.
- Nettle, D & S. Romaine. 2000. Vanishing Voices. Extinction of the World’s Languages. Oxford: Oxford
- University Press.
- Nida, E.A & R.C. Taber. 1969. The Theory and Practice of Translation. E.J. Brill Leiden, Netherland.
- Otieno, J., S. Abihudi, S. Veldman, M. Nahashon, T. Van Andel, H.J. De Boer. 2015. Vernacular
- Dominance in Folk Taxonomy: A Case Study of Ethnospecies in Medicinal Plant Trade in
- Tanzania. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 11(10).
- Pennycook, A. 1994. The Cultural Politics of English As an International Language. New York: Longman
- Group.
- Petzell, M. 2012. The Under-Described Languages of Morogoro: A Sociolinguistic Survey. South
- African Journal of African Languages, 32(1): 17–26.
- Qorro, M.A. 2009. Parents’ and Policymakers’ Insistence on Foreign Languages As Media of
- Education in Africa: Restricting Access to Quality Education-for Those Who Benefit. In: B. BrockUtne & I. Skattum (eds.). Language and Education in Africa. A Comparative and Interdisciplinary
- Analysis. Symposium Books: Oxford; pp. 57–82.
- —. 2013. Language of Instruction in Tanzania: Why Are Research Findings Not Heeded? International
- Review of Education, 59(1): 29–45.
- —. 2006. Does the Language of Instruction Affect Quality of Education? A Paper Presented at the
- Monthly 0730 People and Policy Debates Jointly Organized by Haki Elimu and Policy Forum in
- Roy-Campbell, Z. M. 2001. Empowerment Through Language. Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa
- World Press.
- Rubagumya, C. M. 1989. English Medium Instructions in Tanzanian Secondary Schools: A Conflict
- of Aspirations and Achievements. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 2(2): 107–115.
- —. 2003. English Medium Primary Schools in Tanzania: A New Linguistic Market in Education. In B.
- Brock-Utne, Zubeida Desai. & M. Qorro, (Eds.): Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa
- (LOITASA). Dar es Salaam: E & D Publishers.
- Rubagumya, C. M. (ed.). 1990. Language in Tanzania. Language in Education in Africa: A Tanzanian
- Perspective. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.
- Rubagumya, C.M., O. Afitiska, J. Clegg & P. Kiliku. 2011. A Three-Tier Citizenship. Can the State in
- Tanzania Guarantee Linguistic Human Rights? International Journal of Educational Development
- (1): 78–85.
- Rugemalira, J.M. 2005. Theoretical and Practical Challenges in a Tanzanian English Medium Primary
- School, AFRICA & ASIA: 66–84.
- Schmied, J. 1985. Attitudes Towards English in Tanzania. English World-Wide, 6: 237–269.
- Schmied, J. 2008. East African Englishes. In B. B. Kachru, Y. Kachru & C. L. Nelson (Eds.). The
- Handbook of World Englishes. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 188–202.
- Skutnabb, K.T & R. Phillipson (Eds.) 1995, Linguistic Human Rights. Overcoming Linguistic
- Discrimination. Berlin, Mouton De Gruyter Taylor 1963. Skutnabb-Kangas & Phillipson (Eds.)
- a, 335–345.
- Skutnabb-Kangas, T & R. Phillipson (Eds.) in Collaboration with M. Rannut. 1994. Linguistic Human
- Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter (Contributions to the
- Sociology of Language 67).
- Swilla, I.N. 2009. Languages of Instruction in Tanzania: Contradictions Between Ideology, Policy and
- Implementation. African Study Monographs, 30(1): 1–14, March 2009.
- UNESCO. 2003. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. Sixth Session
- of the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
- –29 November 2011, Bali, Indonesia.
- —. 2003a. Education in a Multilingual World. Paris: UNESCO Position Document.
- —. 2003b. Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages. Language Vitality and Endangerment. Ms.
- Paris, UNESCO.
- —. 2005. Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. Paris. 20
- October 2005.
- United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 1995. Education and Training Policy. Ministry of Education and
- Culture, Dar es Salaam.
- —. 1997. Cultural Policy (Policy Statements). Ministry of Education and Culture, Dar es Salaam.
- —. 2014. Education and Training Policy. Ministry of Education and Culture, Dar es Salaam.
- Wa Thiong’o, N. 1986. Decolonising the Mind. Nairobi: East African Education Publishers.
- Wedin, A. 2006. Literacy Practices in Rural Tanzania: The Case of Karagwe, Journal of Multilingual
- and Multicultural Development, 27: 3, 225–240. doi: 10.1080/01434630608668777.
- Whiteley, W. H. O. 1969. Swahili: The Rise of a National Language. London & New York: Methuen &
- Co.; Barnes & Noble Books.
- Williams, E. 1996. Reading in Two Languages At Year 5 in African Primary Schools. Applied Linguistics,
- : 182–209. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar].
- —. 2006. Bridges and Barriers: Language in African Education and Development. Manchester, England:
- St Jerome Publishing. [Google Scholar]
- Yahya-Othman, S & H. M. Batibo. 1996. The Swinging Pendulum: English in Tanzania 1940 -1990.
- In J. A. Fishman, A. W. Conrad & A. Rubal-Lopez (Eds.). Post-Imperial English. Berlin & New York,
- Mouton De Gruyter, 373–400.
##journal.references##
Achebe, C. 1958. Things Fall Apart. William Heinemann Ltd.
African Union (AU). 2006a. The Charter of the African Cultural Renaissance. Addis Ababa: African Union.
—. 2006b. Language Plan of Action for African Development. Addis Ababa: African Union.
—. 2006c. Second Decade of Education in Africa 20006–2015. Addis Ababa: African Union.
Bakawhemama, J. 2009. What is the Difference in Achievement of Learners in Selected Kiswahili and
English Medium Primary Schools in Tanzania? Master of Education thesis. University of Oslo:
Institute for Educational Research.
Baker, C. 2003. Bilingual Education, Multilingual Matters. Toronto: Clarendon, Buffalo.
Brock-Utne, B. & H.B. Holmarsdottir. 2004. Language Policies and Practices in Tanzania and South
Africa: Problems and Challenges. International Journal of Educational Development 24(1): 67–83.
Calvet, L.J. 1998. La Guerre des Langues et les Politiques Linguistiques. Paris: Hachette.
Canagarajah, A.S. 2011. Accommodating Tensions in Language-in-Classroom Policies: An Afterword.
In: Decolonization, Globalization: Language-in-Education Policy and Practice.
Chumbow, B.S. 2008b. La Politique Linguistique de l’Académie Africaine des Langues et la Diversité
Linguistique. Communication au Colloque Internationale sur la Diversité Linguistique dans les
Universités de la Francophonie, Yaoundé 2008.
Criper, C & W.A. Dodd. 1984. Report on the Teaching of the English Language and Its Use As a
Medium in Education in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: The British Council.
Crystal, D. 2003. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fawzi, M.M. 2013. Traditional Medicine in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal
Plants, Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Vol. 2003, Article ID617459,
Pages. https: //doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459.
Fishman, J. 1986. Language Maintenance and Language Shift As a Field of Inquiry, Linguistics, 9: 32–70.
Gottneid, A.J. (Ed.) 1976. Church and Education in Tanzania. Nairobi: East African Publishing.
Green, E. 2011. The Political Economy of Nation Formation in Modern Tanzania, Explaining Stability
in the Face of Diversity. Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 49(2): 223–244.
Hao, T.T & N.D. Phuong. 2017. World Englishes From a Holistic View and Considerations on English
Education in Vietnam. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies. doi: 10.25073/2525–2445/vnufs.4207.
Harmon, D & L. Maffi. 2002, Are Linguistic and Biological Diversity Linked? Conservation Biology in
Practice, 3,1.
Joseph, E. 2018. Chagga’s Attitude Towards their Ethnic Community Language. M.A thesis,
University of Dar es Salaam.
Kachru, B. B. 1988. Teaching World Englishes. ERIC/CLL News Bulletin, 12(1): 1, 3, 4, 8.
Kanyoro, M. 1991. The Politics of the English Language in Kenya and Tanzania. In Jenny Cheshire
(ed.). English Around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. 402–19.
Languages of Tanzania Project (LoT). 2009. Atlasi ya Lugha za Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Mradi wa
Lugha za Tanzania, Chuo Kikuu cha Dar es Salaam.
Le Ha, P. 2008. Teaching English As an International Language: Identity, Resistance and Negotiation,
Multilingual Matters, Clevedon.
Legere, K. 2002. The Languages of Tanzania. Project; Background, Resources and Perspectives.
Africa and Asia, 2: 163–186.
—. 2007. Vidunda (G38) As an Endangered Language?. In: Selected Proceedings of the 37th Annual
Conference on African Linguistics, 43–54.
—. 2010. Swahili vs. English in Tanzania and the Political Discourse. Studies of the Department of
African Languages and Cultures, 44: 47–66.
Lewis, M.P. 2009. Ethnologue. Languages of the World (16th Edn.). Available at http: //www.
ethnologue.com/ [accessed 20 September 2011].
Likwelile, S. 2018. Decentralisation and Development in Tanzania. University of Dar es Salaam and
Pascal Assey, Victoria Foundation.
Lwaitama, A. F & J. M. Rugemalira. 1990. The English Language Support Project in Tanzania. In: C.
M. Rubagumya (ed.). Language in Education in Africa: A Tanzanian Perspective. Philadelphia:
Multilingual Matters.
Maho, J.F & B. 2003. Sands, A Linguistic Biography of Tanzania. Goteborg: Department of Oriental
and African Languages, Goteborg University. African Journals Online.
Malekani, A.W. 2005. Problems Affecting the Promotion of Literacy in Tanzania and the Role of
Library and Information Science (IS) Profession in Alleviating the Situation.
Matalu, K. 2013. Challenges of Using English Language in the Tanzanian Agricultural Sector in
Maswa and Bariadi Districts. Master of Arts in (Linguistics) Dissertation, University of Dodoma.
Mazrui, A. A & A. M. Mazrui. 1995. Swahili State and Society: Political Economy of an African Language.
London/Nairobi: James Currey; East African Educational.
Mberia, W. K. 2015. The Place of Indigenous Languages in African Development. International Journal
of Language and Linguistics 2(5).
Mekacha, R.O.K. 1993. Is Tanzania Diglossic? The Status and Role of Ethnic Community. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 14(4): 307–320.
Mkilifi, A. m. h. 1972. language in society. doi : 10.1017/S004740450000049X.
Mlekwa, V. M. 1994. Contribution of Literacy Training to Development in the Context of Tanzania:
Emerging Issues and Research Implications. UTAFITI (New Series) Vo/.1 No.1. 1994.
Msanjila, Y.P. 2004. The Future of the Kisafwa Language: A Case Study of Ituha Village in Tanzania.
Journal of Asian and African Studies, 68. 2004.
Mtallo, G. R & Y. N. Masinde. 2018. The Status of Ethnic Community Language(s) Within the
Endogamous and Exogamous Families in Urban Centers of Tanzania. Business Education Journal
(BEJ): II(I): 15 pgs. www.cbe.ac.tz/bej.
Muzale, H.R.T. 2011. Dictionary of Plant Names and Functions in Haya: With English and Swahili Glosses.
Languages of Tanzania Project, University of Dar es Salaam.
Muzale, H.R.T. & J. M. Rugemalira. 2008. Researching and Documenting the Languages of Tanzania.
Language Documentation and Conservation, 2(1): 68–108.
—. 2008. University of Dar es Salaam. Language Documentation and Preservation. 2(1): 68–108 http:
//nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc/.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). 2009. Integrated Labour Force Report.
Neke, S.M. 2003. English in Tanzania: An Anatomy of Hegemony. PhD thesis, University of Gent.
Nettle, D & S. Romaine. 2000. Vanishing Voices. Extinction of the World’s Languages. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Nida, E.A & R.C. Taber. 1969. The Theory and Practice of Translation. E.J. Brill Leiden, Netherland.
Otieno, J., S. Abihudi, S. Veldman, M. Nahashon, T. Van Andel, H.J. De Boer. 2015. Vernacular
Dominance in Folk Taxonomy: A Case Study of Ethnospecies in Medicinal Plant Trade in
Tanzania. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 11(10).
Pennycook, A. 1994. The Cultural Politics of English As an International Language. New York: Longman
Group.
Petzell, M. 2012. The Under-Described Languages of Morogoro: A Sociolinguistic Survey. South
African Journal of African Languages, 32(1): 17–26.
Qorro, M.A. 2009. Parents’ and Policymakers’ Insistence on Foreign Languages As Media of
Education in Africa: Restricting Access to Quality Education-for Those Who Benefit. In: B. BrockUtne & I. Skattum (eds.). Language and Education in Africa. A Comparative and Interdisciplinary
Analysis. Symposium Books: Oxford; pp. 57–82.
—. 2013. Language of Instruction in Tanzania: Why Are Research Findings Not Heeded? International
Review of Education, 59(1): 29–45.
—. 2006. Does the Language of Instruction Affect Quality of Education? A Paper Presented at the
Monthly 0730 People and Policy Debates Jointly Organized by Haki Elimu and Policy Forum in
Roy-Campbell, Z. M. 2001. Empowerment Through Language. Trenton, NJ and Asmara, Eritrea: Africa
World Press.
Rubagumya, C. M. 1989. English Medium Instructions in Tanzanian Secondary Schools: A Conflict
of Aspirations and Achievements. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 2(2): 107–115.
—. 2003. English Medium Primary Schools in Tanzania: A New Linguistic Market in Education. In B.
Brock-Utne, Zubeida Desai. & M. Qorro, (Eds.): Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa
(LOITASA). Dar es Salaam: E & D Publishers.
Rubagumya, C. M. (ed.). 1990. Language in Tanzania. Language in Education in Africa: A Tanzanian
Perspective. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.
Rubagumya, C.M., O. Afitiska, J. Clegg & P. Kiliku. 2011. A Three-Tier Citizenship. Can the State in
Tanzania Guarantee Linguistic Human Rights? International Journal of Educational Development
(1): 78–85.
Rugemalira, J.M. 2005. Theoretical and Practical Challenges in a Tanzanian English Medium Primary
School, AFRICA & ASIA: 66–84.
Schmied, J. 1985. Attitudes Towards English in Tanzania. English World-Wide, 6: 237–269.
Schmied, J. 2008. East African Englishes. In B. B. Kachru, Y. Kachru & C. L. Nelson (Eds.). The
Handbook of World Englishes. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 188–202.
Skutnabb, K.T & R. Phillipson (Eds.) 1995, Linguistic Human Rights. Overcoming Linguistic
Discrimination. Berlin, Mouton De Gruyter Taylor 1963. Skutnabb-Kangas & Phillipson (Eds.)
a, 335–345.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T & R. Phillipson (Eds.) in Collaboration with M. Rannut. 1994. Linguistic Human
Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter (Contributions to the
Sociology of Language 67).
Swilla, I.N. 2009. Languages of Instruction in Tanzania: Contradictions Between Ideology, Policy and
Implementation. African Study Monographs, 30(1): 1–14, March 2009.
UNESCO. 2003. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. Sixth Session
of the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
–29 November 2011, Bali, Indonesia.
—. 2003a. Education in a Multilingual World. Paris: UNESCO Position Document.
—. 2003b. Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages. Language Vitality and Endangerment. Ms.
Paris, UNESCO.
—. 2005. Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. Paris. 20
October 2005.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 1995. Education and Training Policy. Ministry of Education and
Culture, Dar es Salaam.
—. 1997. Cultural Policy (Policy Statements). Ministry of Education and Culture, Dar es Salaam.
—. 2014. Education and Training Policy. Ministry of Education and Culture, Dar es Salaam.
Wa Thiong’o, N. 1986. Decolonising the Mind. Nairobi: East African Education Publishers.
Wedin, A. 2006. Literacy Practices in Rural Tanzania: The Case of Karagwe, Journal of Multilingual
and Multicultural Development, 27: 3, 225–240. doi: 10.1080/01434630608668777.
Whiteley, W. H. O. 1969. Swahili: The Rise of a National Language. London & New York: Methuen &
Co.; Barnes & Noble Books.
Williams, E. 1996. Reading in Two Languages At Year 5 in African Primary Schools. Applied Linguistics,
: 182–209. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar].
—. 2006. Bridges and Barriers: Language in African Education and Development. Manchester, England:
St Jerome Publishing. [Google Scholar]
Yahya-Othman, S & H. M. Batibo. 1996. The Swinging Pendulum: English in Tanzania 1940 -1990.
In J. A. Fishman, A. W. Conrad & A. Rubal-Lopez (Eds.). Post-Imperial English. Berlin & New York,
Mouton De Gruyter, 373–400.