The Construction of Masculinities: Bodaboda Operators and Secondary Schoolgirls’ Pregnancies in Vwawa, Mbozi District, Tanzania
Corresponding Author(s) : Rosemarie N. Mwaipopo
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
##issue.vol## 10 ##issue.no## 5 (2021)
##article.abstract##
This study examines the influence of the construction of masculinities on the prevalence of secondary schoolgirl pregnancies in Vwawa, Mbozi district, Tanzania. The objective was to understand how the constructions of masculinities in some communities perpetuated certain behaviours that impacted on the human rights of female youth. The study used a qualitative approach and engaged both female and male participants in in-depth interviews (IDIs), focus group discussions (FGDs), informal talks, and observations. Key findings illustrate how masculinities are constructed through a shared process, influenced by wider social transformations, and reflect the prevailing socio-cultural contexts. In this case, the masculinities assumed by bodaboda [motorcycle taxi] operators may sometimes influence them to subscribe to specific patterns of group behaviour, including those that attract unassuming female youth, making some of them participants of such constructions, and others subdued in silence. The study thus recommends that more investigation be directed on how to deconstruct manipulative masculinities from multiple angles through social and institutional measures.
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- Construction of Masculinities: Bodaboda Operators and Secondary School-girls.
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Academy for Educational Development. https: //www. fhi360. org/ sites/default/files/media/documents/girls%20getting%20to%20secondary%20school%20safely.pdf. Maguire, M. & B. Delahunt. 2017. Doing a Thematic Analysis: A Practical, Step-by-Step Guide for Learning and Teaching Scholars. Volume 8, Number 3 (Autumn 2017): pp 3351–33513. http: //ojs.aishe.org/index.php/aishe-j/article/view/335. Malisa, J. S. 2015. Factors Contributing to Teenage Pregnancies in Tunduru District Council. A Dissertation, School of Public Administration and Management, Mzumbe University. Mason, J. 2002. Qualitative Researching: 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications. Maurice D. 2013. Gender-Based Violence in South Africa: A Crisis of Masculinity? https: //www.eir.info/2013/04/27/gender-based-violence-in-south-africa-a-crisis-of-masculinity/. Mbegu, S & J. Mjema. 2019. Poverty Cycle with Motorcycle Taxis (Boda-Boda) Business in Developing Countries: Evidence from Mbeya, Tanzania. Open Access Library Journal, 6: E5617. Mbelwa, C & K.G. Isangula. 2012. Teen Pregnancy: Children Having Children in Tanzania. SSRN Electronic Journal. March 2017, Research Gate. Mccrann, D. 2017. An Exploratory Study of Child Sexual Abuse in Tanzania. Doctoral thesis, Technological University, Dublin. https: //arrow.tudublin.ie/cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article =1080 & context=appadoc. Mgalla, Z., D. Schapink & J.T. Boerma. 1998. Protecting Schoolgirls Against Sexual Exploitation: A Guardian Programme in Mwanza, Tanzania, Reproductive Health Matters, 6: 12. 19–30, doi: 10.1016/s0968–8080(98)90004–0. Ministry of Health CD, Gender, Elderly, Children (MoHCDGEC/Tanzania Mainland), Ministry of Health - MoH/Zanzibar, National Bureau of Statistics (NBS/Tanzania), Office of Chief Government Statistician (OCGS/Zanzibar). 2016. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey 2015–16. Final Report, December 2016. United Republic of Tanzania, ICF. Mlyakado, B. P & J.C.M. Li. 2018. Sexual Exploitation of Adolescent Students in Tanzania: Implication for Social Services. International Social Work, May 2018. Morrell, R. (ed.). 2001. Changing Men in Southern Africa. Pietermaritzburg/London: University of Natal Press/Zed Books. Morrell, R. 1998. Of Boys and Men: Masculinity and Gender in Southern African Studies. Journal of Southern African Studies, 24: 605–30. Mutunda, S. 2009. Through a Female Lens: Aspects of Masculinity in Francophone African Women’s Writing. PhD dissertation, University of Arizona. Naddumba, E.K. (n.d.). A Cross-Sectional Retrospective Study of Boda Injuries at Mulago Hospital in Kampala-Uganda. http: //www.bioline. org.br/ pdf?js04011. Odimwegu, C. O., E.O. Amoo & N. De Wet. 2018. Teenage Pregnancy in South Africa: Where Are the Young Men Involved? South African Journal of Child Health, 12 (SPE). S44–S50. 2018. Pfeiffer, C., C. K. Ahorlu, S. Alba & B. Obrist. 2017. Understanding Resilience of Female Adolescents Towards Teenage Pregnancy: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Reproductive Health, 14: 77. https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12978–017–0338–x. Pierotti, R.S. 2013. Masculinity: An Overlooked Cultural Influence on Fertility. Paper Prepared for the Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, New Orleans, LA, April 2013. Ratele, K & S. Suffla. 2011. Violence, Masculinity and Wellbeing in Africa. Africa in Focus: Governance in the 21st Century. Ch 20. pp 259–281. Rwebangira, M. K. & R. Liljestrom (Eds.). 1998. Haraka, Haraka—Look Before You Leap: Youth at the Crossroad of Custom and Modernity. Nordic Africa Institute. Sik, I. 2015. Early Motherhood in Tanzania: Exploring the Educational, Health and Employment Challenges of Dar es Salaam’s Adolescent Mothers. Honours BA (Hons) thesis, International Development Studies, University of Toronto, Scarborough. Silberschmidt, M. 2001. Disempowerment of Men in Rural and Urban East Africa: Implications for Male Identity and Sexual Behavior. World Dev., 29(4): 657–71. Silver, E. R., S. B. Chadwick & S. M. van Anders. 2019. Feminist Identity in Men: Masculinity, Gender Roles, and Sexual Approaches in Feminist, Non-feminist, and Unsure Men. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 80(5–6): 277–290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199–018–0932–6. Taboolay T. 2014. Study: Why ‘Bodabodas’ Rule. The CITIZEN, Friday, November 14. 2014. Tanzania Commission for AIDS (TACAIDS). 2012. Child Sex Abuse Report. 2012. Tanzania. TACAIDS: United Republic of Tanzania. —. 2010. Sexual Abuse Report: The Magnitude, Risk Factors and Socio-Cultural Dynamics for Sexual Abuse and Early Sexual Debut Among in and Out of School Adolescents in Tanzania. TACAIDS: United Republic of Tanzania. The Citizen. 2014. Study: Why ‘Bodabodas’ Rule. The Citizen Newspaper, Tanzania, November 14. 2014. https: //www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/study-why-bodabodas-rule-2518032. Tripp, A. M. 1989. Women and the Changing Urban Household Economy in Tanzania. Journal of Modern African Studies, 27(4): 601–623. Tumbo-Masabo, Z.Z. & R. Liljestrom (Eds.). 1994. Chelewa: The Dilemma of Teenage Girls. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 2018. Tanzania, Fact Sheet: Teenage Pregnancy. United Nations Population Fund, Tanzania. United Nations (UN). 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1. https: //sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ content/documents/ 21252030%20 agenda% 20for%20sustainable%20development%20web.pdf. Uromi, S. 2014. Schoolgirl Pregnancies as a Most Critical and Rapidly Growing Challenge in Tanzania. International Journal of Innovation and Scientific Research. 10(1): 191–194. United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2016a. National Plan of Action on Violence Against Women and Children (NPA-VAWC), Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, November. 2016. —. 2016b. Basic Education Statistics of Tanzania 2012–2016. Ministry of Education and Culture. United Republic of Tanzania. —. 2010a. National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) II. 2010/11–2014/15, Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, United Republic of Tanzania. July 2010. —. 2010. Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MOEVT). 2010. “Statistics,” MOEVT. http: //moe.go.tz/statistics.html. —. 2005. National Gender Development Strategy. Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children,. United Republic of Tanzania. Vyas, S & H.A.F.M. Jansen. 2018. Unequal Power Relations and Partner Violence Against Women in Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Analysis. BMC Women’s Health, 18: 185.
##journal.references##
Abeid, M., P. Muganyizi, P. Olsson, E. Darj & P. Axemo. 2014. Community Perceptions of Rape and Child Sexual Abuse: A Qualitative Study in Rural Tanzania. BMC 23,(18 August. 2014). Amadiume, I. 1987. Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zed Books.
Construction of Masculinities: Bodaboda Operators and Secondary School-girls.
Aglionby, J. 2017. Tanzania’s Enemies of the State: Pregnant Young Women. Financial Times. October 11. 2017. https: //www.ft.com/content/c7507730–712c-11e7–93ff-99f383b09ff9. Bhalla, N. 2020. Tanzania Lets Pregnant Girls Attend School with World Bank Project. Reuters, April 7. 2020. https: //www.reuters.com/article/us-tanzania-women-education-trfn/tanzania-lets-pregnant- girls-attend-school-with-world-bank-project-iduskbn21p2we. Bishop, T. & P. Amos. 2015. Opportunities to Improve Road Safety Through ‘Boda?Boda’ Associations in Tanzania. Final Report, AMEND, May 2015. Africa Community Access Partnership (AFCAP) and UKAID. Broqua, C. & A. Doquet. 2013. Examining Masculinities in Africa and Beyond. Cahiers D Études Africaines · June 2013 Research Gate. Carrigan, T., B. Connel & J. Lee. 1985. Toward a New Sociology of Masculinity. Theory and Society, Vol 14. No. 5, Sept 1985. pp 551–604. Chambua, S. E., M. Kamugisha-Rwebangira, R. Liljestrom & E. J. N. Urassa. 1994. Facts About and Images of Teenage Girls in Tanzania. In: Tumbo-Masabo, Z.Z. & R. Liljestrom (Eds). Chelewa: The Dilemma of Teenage Girls. The Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, Sweden. pp. 15–34. Clair, R. N. S. 1977. The Social and Cultural Construction of Silence. Western Journal of Anthropology. 26(3): 213–230. https: //web.uri.edu/iaics/files/08–robert-n.-st.-clair.pdf. Cornwall, A. 1997. Men, Masculinity and ‘Gender in Development. Gender and Development, 5(2): 8–13. Cossins, A. 2000. Masculinities, Sexuality and Child Sexual Abuse. The British Criminology Conference: Selected Proceedings, Vol 3. Liverpool July 1999. https: //www.researchgate.net/ profile/annie_cossins/publication/237601543_masculinities_sexualities_and_child_sexual_abu se/links/54e26f980cf2c3e7d2d3a300/masculinities-sexualities-and-child-sexual-abuse. Creswell, J.W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. 4th Edition. California: SAGE Publications. Dahir, A. L. 2016. The Value of Motorcycle Public Transport Will More Than Double in Africa. October 16. 2016. https: //qz.com/africa/800070/the-value-of-motorcycle-public-transport-willmore-than-double-in-africa. Gentry, J., S. M. Baker & F. B. Kraft. 1995. The Role of Possessions in Creating, Maintaining, and Preserving One's Identity: Variation Over the Life Course. In F. R. Kardes & M. Sujan (eds.). NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 22. Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, pp. 413–418. Hanson, J. D., T.R. Mcmahon, E.R. Griese & D.Y.B. Kenyon. 2014. Understanding Gender Roles in Teen Pregnancy Prevention Among American Indian Youth. American Journal of Health Behaviour, 38(6): 807–815. doi: 10.5993/ajhb.38.6.2. Hautzinger, S. 2003. Researching Men’s Violence: Personal Reflections on Ethnographic Data. Men and Masculinities, 6(1): 93–106. https: //doi.org/ 10.1177/ 1097184 x03253139. Humberstone, E. 2018. Social Networks and Educational Attainment Among Adolescents Experiencing Pregnancy. Socius, Vol 4: 1–13, October 2018. Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2020. Tanzania: WB Disregarding Ban on Pregnant Schoolgirls. Jan 27. 2020. https: //www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/27/tanzania-world-bank-disregarding-ban-pregnantschoolgirls—. 2017. I Had a Dream to Finish School. Barriers to Secondary Education in Tanzania. Human Rights Watch, February 2017. https: //www.hrw.org/sites/ default/files/ accessible document/ Tanzania 0217_-_accessible.pdf. Kavuma, R. 2015. Revved and Ready to Go: Tanzania is Set to Tackle Unstoppable Boda Taxis. The Guardian, 30th June 2015. https: //www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jun/30/ tanzania-boda-boda-motorcycle-taxis-accidents-lax-regulation. Kothari C.W. 1990. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Revised 2nd Edition. New Age Publishers, New Delhi. Legal and Human Rights Centre (LHRC). 2021. Tanzania Human Rights Report. 2020: Human Rights Protection and the Threat Posed by Covid19 in Tanzania. Legal and Human Rights Centre (LHRC), Tanzania. February 2021. —. Sexual Violence: A Threat to Child Rights and Welfare in Tanzania. Tanzania Legal and Human Rights Centre (LHRC) & Zanzibar Legal Services Centre (ZLSC), April. 2019, Tanzania. Liljestrom, R., P. Masanja, M.K. Rwebangira & E.J.N. Urassa. 1998. Cultural Conflicts and Ambiguities. In M. K. Rwebangira & R. Liljestrom (Eds.). Haraka, Haraka: Look Before You Leap: Youth at the Crossroad of Custom and Modernity. Nordic Africa Institute, Sweden, pp 11–42. Liu, F. & S. Maitlis. 2010. Nonparticipant Observation. In Albert J. Mills, G. Durepos & E. Wiebe (Eds.). Encyclopaedia of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, pp. 610–612. Mack, L. 2009. Girls Getting to Secondary School Safely: Combating Gender-Based Violence in the Transportation Sector in Tanzania. Academy for Educational Development. https: //www. fhi360. org/ sites/default/files/media/documents/girls%20getting%20to%20secondary%20school%20safely.pdf. Maguire, M. & B. Delahunt. 2017. Doing a Thematic Analysis: A Practical, Step-by-Step Guide for Learning and Teaching Scholars. Volume 8, Number 3 (Autumn 2017): pp 3351–33513. http: //ojs.aishe.org/index.php/aishe-j/article/view/335. Malisa, J. S. 2015. Factors Contributing to Teenage Pregnancies in Tunduru District Council. A Dissertation, School of Public Administration and Management, Mzumbe University. Mason, J. 2002. Qualitative Researching: 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications. Maurice D. 2013. Gender-Based Violence in South Africa: A Crisis of Masculinity? https: //www.eir.info/2013/04/27/gender-based-violence-in-south-africa-a-crisis-of-masculinity/. Mbegu, S & J. Mjema. 2019. Poverty Cycle with Motorcycle Taxis (Boda-Boda) Business in Developing Countries: Evidence from Mbeya, Tanzania. Open Access Library Journal, 6: E5617. Mbelwa, C & K.G. Isangula. 2012. Teen Pregnancy: Children Having Children in Tanzania. SSRN Electronic Journal. March 2017, Research Gate. Mccrann, D. 2017. An Exploratory Study of Child Sexual Abuse in Tanzania. Doctoral thesis, Technological University, Dublin. https: //arrow.tudublin.ie/cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article =1080 & context=appadoc. Mgalla, Z., D. Schapink & J.T. Boerma. 1998. Protecting Schoolgirls Against Sexual Exploitation: A Guardian Programme in Mwanza, Tanzania, Reproductive Health Matters, 6: 12. 19–30, doi: 10.1016/s0968–8080(98)90004–0. Ministry of Health CD, Gender, Elderly, Children (MoHCDGEC/Tanzania Mainland), Ministry of Health - MoH/Zanzibar, National Bureau of Statistics (NBS/Tanzania), Office of Chief Government Statistician (OCGS/Zanzibar). 2016. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey 2015–16. Final Report, December 2016. United Republic of Tanzania, ICF. Mlyakado, B. P & J.C.M. Li. 2018. Sexual Exploitation of Adolescent Students in Tanzania: Implication for Social Services. International Social Work, May 2018. Morrell, R. (ed.). 2001. Changing Men in Southern Africa. Pietermaritzburg/London: University of Natal Press/Zed Books. Morrell, R. 1998. Of Boys and Men: Masculinity and Gender in Southern African Studies. Journal of Southern African Studies, 24: 605–30. Mutunda, S. 2009. Through a Female Lens: Aspects of Masculinity in Francophone African Women’s Writing. PhD dissertation, University of Arizona. Naddumba, E.K. (n.d.). A Cross-Sectional Retrospective Study of Boda Injuries at Mulago Hospital in Kampala-Uganda. http: //www.bioline. org.br/ pdf?js04011. Odimwegu, C. O., E.O. Amoo & N. De Wet. 2018. Teenage Pregnancy in South Africa: Where Are the Young Men Involved? South African Journal of Child Health, 12 (SPE). S44–S50. 2018. Pfeiffer, C., C. K. Ahorlu, S. Alba & B. Obrist. 2017. Understanding Resilience of Female Adolescents Towards Teenage Pregnancy: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Reproductive Health, 14: 77. https: //doi.org/10.1186/s12978–017–0338–x. Pierotti, R.S. 2013. Masculinity: An Overlooked Cultural Influence on Fertility. Paper Prepared for the Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America, New Orleans, LA, April 2013. Ratele, K & S. Suffla. 2011. Violence, Masculinity and Wellbeing in Africa. Africa in Focus: Governance in the 21st Century. Ch 20. pp 259–281. Rwebangira, M. K. & R. Liljestrom (Eds.). 1998. Haraka, Haraka—Look Before You Leap: Youth at the Crossroad of Custom and Modernity. Nordic Africa Institute. Sik, I. 2015. Early Motherhood in Tanzania: Exploring the Educational, Health and Employment Challenges of Dar es Salaam’s Adolescent Mothers. Honours BA (Hons) thesis, International Development Studies, University of Toronto, Scarborough. Silberschmidt, M. 2001. Disempowerment of Men in Rural and Urban East Africa: Implications for Male Identity and Sexual Behavior. World Dev., 29(4): 657–71. Silver, E. R., S. B. Chadwick & S. M. van Anders. 2019. Feminist Identity in Men: Masculinity, Gender Roles, and Sexual Approaches in Feminist, Non-feminist, and Unsure Men. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 80(5–6): 277–290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199–018–0932–6. Taboolay T. 2014. Study: Why ‘Bodabodas’ Rule. The CITIZEN, Friday, November 14. 2014. Tanzania Commission for AIDS (TACAIDS). 2012. Child Sex Abuse Report. 2012. Tanzania. TACAIDS: United Republic of Tanzania. —. 2010. Sexual Abuse Report: The Magnitude, Risk Factors and Socio-Cultural Dynamics for Sexual Abuse and Early Sexual Debut Among in and Out of School Adolescents in Tanzania. TACAIDS: United Republic of Tanzania. The Citizen. 2014. Study: Why ‘Bodabodas’ Rule. The Citizen Newspaper, Tanzania, November 14. 2014. https: //www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/study-why-bodabodas-rule-2518032. Tripp, A. M. 1989. Women and the Changing Urban Household Economy in Tanzania. Journal of Modern African Studies, 27(4): 601–623. Tumbo-Masabo, Z.Z. & R. Liljestrom (Eds.). 1994. Chelewa: The Dilemma of Teenage Girls. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 2018. Tanzania, Fact Sheet: Teenage Pregnancy. United Nations Population Fund, Tanzania. United Nations (UN). 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1. https: //sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ content/documents/ 21252030%20 agenda% 20for%20sustainable%20development%20web.pdf. Uromi, S. 2014. Schoolgirl Pregnancies as a Most Critical and Rapidly Growing Challenge in Tanzania. International Journal of Innovation and Scientific Research. 10(1): 191–194. United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2016a. National Plan of Action on Violence Against Women and Children (NPA-VAWC), Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, November. 2016. —. 2016b. Basic Education Statistics of Tanzania 2012–2016. Ministry of Education and Culture. United Republic of Tanzania. —. 2010a. National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) II. 2010/11–2014/15, Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, United Republic of Tanzania. July 2010. —. 2010. Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MOEVT). 2010. “Statistics,” MOEVT. http: //moe.go.tz/statistics.html. —. 2005. National Gender Development Strategy. Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children,. United Republic of Tanzania. Vyas, S & H.A.F.M. Jansen. 2018. Unequal Power Relations and Partner Violence Against Women in Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Analysis. BMC Women’s Health, 18: 185.