Mentoring Experiences in Higher Education: Voices of Early Career Academics (ECAs) at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Corresponding Author(s) : Joel J. Kayombo
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
Vol. 9 No. 3 (2021)
Abstract
ased on phenomenological inquiry, this paper analyses the perspectives and
experiences of early career academics (ECAs) in obtaining mentoring support at the
University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM). Phenomenological focus group discussions and
phenomenological interviews were used to access narrative accounts from 21 ECAs. The
study employed specific and step-by-step idiographic case study data analysis with a
precise focus on the shared experiences of participants. The findings unveil mixed
experiences in obtaining mentoring support among ECAs, the presence of peer
mentoring, and the pivotal role of personal relationship in mentorship practices.
Moreover, it was revealed that limited resources, time, and research projects;
involvement of senior academics in administrative duties; and unequal power relations
between ECAs and senior academics are the potential setbacks for best mentoring
practices. The study recommends an organizational change to institutionalize
mentoring as a career development strategy that should be practised by both ECAs and
senior counterparts.
Keywords
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- Aderibigbe, S., D. S.Gray & L. Colucci-Gray. 2018. Understanding the Nature of Mentoring
- Experiences Between Teachers and Student Teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and
- Coaching in Education, 7(1): 54–71. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-04-2017-0028.
- Alase, A. 2017. The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA): A Guide to a Good Qualitative
- Research Approach. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 5(2): 9. https:// doi. org/
- 7575/aiac.ijels.v.5n.2p.9.
- Archer, M. S. 2007. Making Our Way Through the World: Human Reflexivity and Mobility. CUP.
- Boyd, P. & K. Harris. 2010. Becoming a University Lecturer in Teacher Education: Expert School
- Teachers Reconstructing Their Pedagogy and Identity. Professional Development in Education,
- (1–2): 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415250903454767.
- Bradbury-Jones, C., S. Sambrook & F. Irvine. 2009. The Phenomenological Focus Group. An
- Oxymoron? Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(3): 663–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2648.
- 04922.x.
- Bryman, A. 2016. Social Research Methods (5th.Ed). Oxford University Press.
- Carlsen, B. & C. Glenton. 2011. What About N? a Methodological Study of Sample-Size Reporting in
- Focus Group Studies. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(26): 1–10. https://doi.org/ doi:
- 1186/1471-2288-11-26.
- Carmel, R. G. & M. W. Paul. 2015. Mentoring and Coaching in Academia: Reflections on a
- Mentoring/Coaching Relationship. Policy Futures in Education, 13(4): 479–491. https://doi.org/
- 1177/1478210315578562.
- Desimone, L. M., E. D. Hochberg, A. C. Porter, M. S. Polikoff, R. Schwartz & L. J. Johnson. 2014.
- Formal and Informal Mentoring: Complementary, Compensatory, or Consistent? Journal of
- Teacher Education, 65(2): 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487113511643.
- Desselle, S. P., H. Chang, G. Fleming, A. Habib, J. Canedo & E. Mantzourani. 2020. Design
- Fundamentals of Mentoring Programs for Pharmacy Professionals (Part 1): Considerations for
- Organizations. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, April, 1–8. https://doi.org/
- 1016/j.sapharm.2020.04.015.
- Flesoras, C. D. 2009. The Historical Place and Character of Mentoring in Higher Education: A Study of
- Christian Formation in the Byzantine East [University of California, Davis]. https://doi.org/
- 1016/j.jaci.2012.05.050.
- Giroux, H. A. 2011. On Critical Pedagogy. Continuum.
- Guerrero-Castañeda, R. F., T. M. De O. Menezes & M. G. Ojeda-Vargas. 2017. Characteristics of the
- Phenomenological Interview in Nursing Research. Revista Gaucha De Enfermagem, 38(2): E67458.
- https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-1447.2017.02.67458.
- Hatch, A. J. 2002. Doing Qualitative Research in Education Settings. State University of New York Press.
- Hesse-Biber, S. N. 2010. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory With Practice. The Guilford Press.
- Hobson, A. J. & A. Malderez. 2013. Judgementoring and Other Threats to Realizing the Potential of
- School-Based Mentoring in Teacher Education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in
- Education, 2(2): 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-03-2013-0019.
- Inzer, L. D. & Crawford, C. . 2005. A Review of Formal and Informal Mentoring: Processes, Problems,
- and Design. Journal of Leadership Education, 4(1): 31–50. https://doi.org/10.12806/V4/I1/TF2.
- Kamarudin, M. Binti, Kamarudin, A. Y. Binti, Darmi, R. Binti. & Saad, N. S. Binti M. 2020. A Review of
- Coaching and Mentoring Theories and Models. International Journal of Academic Research in
- Progressive Education and Development, 9(2): 289–298. Https://Doi.Org/10.6007/IJARPED/V9-I2/7302.
- Kayombo, J. J. 2019. Becoming , Doing , Being and Belonging Into Academics : Career Trajectories
- of Early-Career Academics at the University of Dar es Salaam. Paper in Education and Development,
- (37): 180–200.
- Kemmis, S., Heikkinen, H. L. T., Fransson, G., Aspfors, J. & Edwards-Groves, C. 2014. Mentoring of New
- Teachers As a Contested Practice: Supervision, Support and Collaborative Self-Development.
- Teaching and Teacher Education, 43: 154–164. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.tate. 2014.07.001.
- Love, B., Vetere, A. & Davis, P. 2020. Should Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Be Used
- With Focus Groups? Navigating the Bumpy Road of “Iterative Loops. Idiographic Journeys, and
- “Phenomenological Bridges. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 19: 1–17. https:// doi.
- org/10.1177/1609406920921600.
- Mertens, D. 2010. Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Intergrating Diversity With
- Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Method (3rd Ed.). Sage Publications.
- Millward, L. 2012. Focus Groups. In G. M. Breakwell, J. A. Smith. & D. B. Wright (Eds.). (4th Ed.).
- Research Methods in Psychology. Sage Publications, pp. 411–437.
- Misiaszek, L. I. 2015. ‘You’re Not Able to Breathe’: Conceptualizing the Intersectionality of Early
- Career, Gender and Crisis. Teaching in Higher Education. 20(1): 64–77. https://doi.org/10. 1080/
- 2014.957267.
- Moosa, D. 2013. Challenges to Anonymity and Representation in Educational Qualitative Research
- in a Small Community: A Reflection on My Research Journey. Compare, 43(4): 483–495. https://
- doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2013.797733.
- Mullen, C. A. & D. W. Lick. 1999. New Directions in Mentoring: Creating a Culture of Synergy. Falmer Press.
- Nabi, G., Walmsley, A. & I. Akhtar. 2019. Mentoring Functions and Entrepreneur Development in
- the Early Years of University. Studies in Higher Education, 0(0): 1–16. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/
- 2019.1665009.
- Neubauer, B. E., C. T. Witkop & L. Varpio. 2019. How Phenomenology Can Help Us Learn from the
- Experiences of Others. Perspectives on Medical Education, 8(2): 90–97. https://doi.org/10. 1007/
- s40037-019-0509-2.
- O’Connor, P., C. O’Hagan, E. S. Myers, L. Baisner, G. Apostolov, I. Topuzova, G. Saglamer, M. G. Tan
- & H. Caglayan. 2020. Mentoring and Sponsorship in Higher Education Institutions: Men’s
- Invisible Advantage in STEM? Higher Education Research and Development, 39(4): 764–777. https://
- doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1686468.
- Oberhauser, A. M. & M. A. Caretta. 2019. Mentoring Early Career Women Geographers in the
- Neoliberal Academy: Dialogue, Reflexivity, and Ethics of Care. Geografiska Annaler, Series B:
- Human Geography, 101(1): 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/04353684.2018.1556566.
- Ortega, G., C. Smith, M. S. Pichardo, A. Ramirez, M. Soto-Greene & J. P. Sánchez. 2018. Preparing
- for an Academic Career: The Significance of Mentoring. Mededportal : The Journal of Teaching and
- Learning Resources, 14. https://doi.org/10.15766/Mep_2374-8265.10690.
- Palmer, M., M. Larkin, R. De Visser & G. Fadden. 2010. Developing an Interpretative Phenomenological Approach to Focus Group Data. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 7(2): 99–121. https://
- doi.org/10.1080/14780880802513194.
- Saletnik, L. 2018. The Importance of Mentoring. AORN Journal. 108: Issue 4. https://doi. org/ 10.
- /aorn.12386.
- Šašinka, C., Z. Stacho?, M. Sedlák, J. Chmelík, L. Herman, P. Kubí?ek, A. Šašinková, M. Doležal, H.
- Tejkl, T. Urbánek, H. Svato?ová, P. Ugwitz & V. Ju?ík. 2019. Collaborative Immersive Virtual
- Environments for Education in Geography. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 8(1).
- https://doi.org/10.3390/Ijgi8010003.
- Singh, V., D. Bains & S. Vinnicombe. 2002. Informal Mentoring As an Organisational Resource. Long
- Range Planning, 35: 389–405.
- Smith-Slabaugh, J. J. 2006. Structured Faculty Mentoring in Higher Education: A Descriptive Analysis of
- the Perceptions of Junior and Senior Faculty. Virginia Commonwealth University.
- Stager, P., K. Goddard, M. Hellerstein, H. Kaung, A. Matthews, L. Montgomery, L. Siminoff & M.
- Walsh. 2006. Barriers to Career Development for Women Faculty of the School of Medicine : Findings
- from the Focus Groups at the 2005 WFSOM Fall Program.
- Trevethan, H. 2017. Educative Mentors? The Role of Classroom Teachers in Initial Teacher
- Education. A New Zealand Study. Journal of Education for Teaching, 43(2): 219–231. https://doi.
- org/10.1080/02607476.2017.1286784.
- Tuffour, I. 2017. A Critical Overview of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: A Contemporary
- Qualitative Research Approach. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 02(04): 1–5. https://doi.org/
- 4172/2472-1654.100093.
- Turner, R., R. Huang, O. Poverjuc & L. Wyness. 2016. What Role Do Teaching Mentors Play in
- Supporting New University Lecturers to Develop Their Teaching Practices? Professional
- Development in Education, 42(4): 647–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2015.1065898.
- Wang, J. & S. J. Odell. 2007. An Alternative Conception of Mentor-Novice Relationships: Learning to
- Teach in Reform-Minded Ways As a Context. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(4): 473–489.
- https://doi.org/10.1016/J.Tate.2006.12.010.
- Watson, K. A. 2008. The Role of Mentoring, Family Support and Networking in the Career Trajectory
- of Female Senior Leaders in Health Care and Higher Education. In Dissertation Abstracts
- International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences (Vol. 69, Issues 2-A).
- Watty, K., K. Hilliar, S. Ji, S. Magdziarz & M. Simpson. 2006. Reflections on the Mentoring Process
- With Academics Entering a “New” Educational Experience. Asian Review of Accounting, 14(1–2):
- –48. https://doi.org/10.1108/13217340610729455.
- Zambrana, R. E., R. Ray, M. M. Espino, C. Castro, B. Douthirt Cohen & J. Eliason. 2015. “Don’t Leave
- Us Behind” The Importance of Mentoring for Underrepresented Minority Faculty. American
- Educational Research Journal, 52(1). https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214563063
References
Aderibigbe, S., D. S.Gray & L. Colucci-Gray. 2018. Understanding the Nature of Mentoring
Experiences Between Teachers and Student Teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and
Coaching in Education, 7(1): 54–71. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-04-2017-0028.
Alase, A. 2017. The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA): A Guide to a Good Qualitative
Research Approach. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 5(2): 9. https:// doi. org/
7575/aiac.ijels.v.5n.2p.9.
Archer, M. S. 2007. Making Our Way Through the World: Human Reflexivity and Mobility. CUP.
Boyd, P. & K. Harris. 2010. Becoming a University Lecturer in Teacher Education: Expert School
Teachers Reconstructing Their Pedagogy and Identity. Professional Development in Education,
(1–2): 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415250903454767.
Bradbury-Jones, C., S. Sambrook & F. Irvine. 2009. The Phenomenological Focus Group. An
Oxymoron? Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(3): 663–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2648.
04922.x.
Bryman, A. 2016. Social Research Methods (5th.Ed). Oxford University Press.
Carlsen, B. & C. Glenton. 2011. What About N? a Methodological Study of Sample-Size Reporting in
Focus Group Studies. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(26): 1–10. https://doi.org/ doi:
1186/1471-2288-11-26.
Carmel, R. G. & M. W. Paul. 2015. Mentoring and Coaching in Academia: Reflections on a
Mentoring/Coaching Relationship. Policy Futures in Education, 13(4): 479–491. https://doi.org/
1177/1478210315578562.
Desimone, L. M., E. D. Hochberg, A. C. Porter, M. S. Polikoff, R. Schwartz & L. J. Johnson. 2014.
Formal and Informal Mentoring: Complementary, Compensatory, or Consistent? Journal of
Teacher Education, 65(2): 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487113511643.
Desselle, S. P., H. Chang, G. Fleming, A. Habib, J. Canedo & E. Mantzourani. 2020. Design
Fundamentals of Mentoring Programs for Pharmacy Professionals (Part 1): Considerations for
Organizations. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, April, 1–8. https://doi.org/
1016/j.sapharm.2020.04.015.
Flesoras, C. D. 2009. The Historical Place and Character of Mentoring in Higher Education: A Study of
Christian Formation in the Byzantine East [University of California, Davis]. https://doi.org/
1016/j.jaci.2012.05.050.
Giroux, H. A. 2011. On Critical Pedagogy. Continuum.
Guerrero-Castañeda, R. F., T. M. De O. Menezes & M. G. Ojeda-Vargas. 2017. Characteristics of the
Phenomenological Interview in Nursing Research. Revista Gaucha De Enfermagem, 38(2): E67458.
https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-1447.2017.02.67458.
Hatch, A. J. 2002. Doing Qualitative Research in Education Settings. State University of New York Press.
Hesse-Biber, S. N. 2010. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory With Practice. The Guilford Press.
Hobson, A. J. & A. Malderez. 2013. Judgementoring and Other Threats to Realizing the Potential of
School-Based Mentoring in Teacher Education. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in
Education, 2(2): 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-03-2013-0019.
Inzer, L. D. & Crawford, C. . 2005. A Review of Formal and Informal Mentoring: Processes, Problems,
and Design. Journal of Leadership Education, 4(1): 31–50. https://doi.org/10.12806/V4/I1/TF2.
Kamarudin, M. Binti, Kamarudin, A. Y. Binti, Darmi, R. Binti. & Saad, N. S. Binti M. 2020. A Review of
Coaching and Mentoring Theories and Models. International Journal of Academic Research in
Progressive Education and Development, 9(2): 289–298. Https://Doi.Org/10.6007/IJARPED/V9-I2/7302.
Kayombo, J. J. 2019. Becoming , Doing , Being and Belonging Into Academics : Career Trajectories
of Early-Career Academics at the University of Dar es Salaam. Paper in Education and Development,
(37): 180–200.
Kemmis, S., Heikkinen, H. L. T., Fransson, G., Aspfors, J. & Edwards-Groves, C. 2014. Mentoring of New
Teachers As a Contested Practice: Supervision, Support and Collaborative Self-Development.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 43: 154–164. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.tate. 2014.07.001.
Love, B., Vetere, A. & Davis, P. 2020. Should Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Be Used
With Focus Groups? Navigating the Bumpy Road of “Iterative Loops. Idiographic Journeys, and
“Phenomenological Bridges. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 19: 1–17. https:// doi.
org/10.1177/1609406920921600.
Mertens, D. 2010. Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Intergrating Diversity With
Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Method (3rd Ed.). Sage Publications.
Millward, L. 2012. Focus Groups. In G. M. Breakwell, J. A. Smith. & D. B. Wright (Eds.). (4th Ed.).
Research Methods in Psychology. Sage Publications, pp. 411–437.
Misiaszek, L. I. 2015. ‘You’re Not Able to Breathe’: Conceptualizing the Intersectionality of Early
Career, Gender and Crisis. Teaching in Higher Education. 20(1): 64–77. https://doi.org/10. 1080/
2014.957267.
Moosa, D. 2013. Challenges to Anonymity and Representation in Educational Qualitative Research
in a Small Community: A Reflection on My Research Journey. Compare, 43(4): 483–495. https://
doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2013.797733.
Mullen, C. A. & D. W. Lick. 1999. New Directions in Mentoring: Creating a Culture of Synergy. Falmer Press.
Nabi, G., Walmsley, A. & I. Akhtar. 2019. Mentoring Functions and Entrepreneur Development in
the Early Years of University. Studies in Higher Education, 0(0): 1–16. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/
2019.1665009.
Neubauer, B. E., C. T. Witkop & L. Varpio. 2019. How Phenomenology Can Help Us Learn from the
Experiences of Others. Perspectives on Medical Education, 8(2): 90–97. https://doi.org/10. 1007/
s40037-019-0509-2.
O’Connor, P., C. O’Hagan, E. S. Myers, L. Baisner, G. Apostolov, I. Topuzova, G. Saglamer, M. G. Tan
& H. Caglayan. 2020. Mentoring and Sponsorship in Higher Education Institutions: Men’s
Invisible Advantage in STEM? Higher Education Research and Development, 39(4): 764–777. https://
doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1686468.
Oberhauser, A. M. & M. A. Caretta. 2019. Mentoring Early Career Women Geographers in the
Neoliberal Academy: Dialogue, Reflexivity, and Ethics of Care. Geografiska Annaler, Series B:
Human Geography, 101(1): 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/04353684.2018.1556566.
Ortega, G., C. Smith, M. S. Pichardo, A. Ramirez, M. Soto-Greene & J. P. Sánchez. 2018. Preparing
for an Academic Career: The Significance of Mentoring. Mededportal : The Journal of Teaching and
Learning Resources, 14. https://doi.org/10.15766/Mep_2374-8265.10690.
Palmer, M., M. Larkin, R. De Visser & G. Fadden. 2010. Developing an Interpretative Phenomenological Approach to Focus Group Data. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 7(2): 99–121. https://
doi.org/10.1080/14780880802513194.
Saletnik, L. 2018. The Importance of Mentoring. AORN Journal. 108: Issue 4. https://doi. org/ 10.
/aorn.12386.
Šašinka, C., Z. Stacho?, M. Sedlák, J. Chmelík, L. Herman, P. Kubí?ek, A. Šašinková, M. Doležal, H.
Tejkl, T. Urbánek, H. Svato?ová, P. Ugwitz & V. Ju?ík. 2019. Collaborative Immersive Virtual
Environments for Education in Geography. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 8(1).
https://doi.org/10.3390/Ijgi8010003.
Singh, V., D. Bains & S. Vinnicombe. 2002. Informal Mentoring As an Organisational Resource. Long
Range Planning, 35: 389–405.
Smith-Slabaugh, J. J. 2006. Structured Faculty Mentoring in Higher Education: A Descriptive Analysis of
the Perceptions of Junior and Senior Faculty. Virginia Commonwealth University.
Stager, P., K. Goddard, M. Hellerstein, H. Kaung, A. Matthews, L. Montgomery, L. Siminoff & M.
Walsh. 2006. Barriers to Career Development for Women Faculty of the School of Medicine : Findings
from the Focus Groups at the 2005 WFSOM Fall Program.
Trevethan, H. 2017. Educative Mentors? The Role of Classroom Teachers in Initial Teacher
Education. A New Zealand Study. Journal of Education for Teaching, 43(2): 219–231. https://doi.
org/10.1080/02607476.2017.1286784.
Tuffour, I. 2017. A Critical Overview of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: A Contemporary
Qualitative Research Approach. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 02(04): 1–5. https://doi.org/
4172/2472-1654.100093.
Turner, R., R. Huang, O. Poverjuc & L. Wyness. 2016. What Role Do Teaching Mentors Play in
Supporting New University Lecturers to Develop Their Teaching Practices? Professional
Development in Education, 42(4): 647–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2015.1065898.
Wang, J. & S. J. Odell. 2007. An Alternative Conception of Mentor-Novice Relationships: Learning to
Teach in Reform-Minded Ways As a Context. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(4): 473–489.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.Tate.2006.12.010.
Watson, K. A. 2008. The Role of Mentoring, Family Support and Networking in the Career Trajectory
of Female Senior Leaders in Health Care and Higher Education. In Dissertation Abstracts
International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences (Vol. 69, Issues 2-A).
Watty, K., K. Hilliar, S. Ji, S. Magdziarz & M. Simpson. 2006. Reflections on the Mentoring Process
With Academics Entering a “New” Educational Experience. Asian Review of Accounting, 14(1–2):
–48. https://doi.org/10.1108/13217340610729455.
Zambrana, R. E., R. Ray, M. M. Espino, C. Castro, B. Douthirt Cohen & J. Eliason. 2015. “Don’t Leave
Us Behind” The Importance of Mentoring for Underrepresented Minority Faculty. American
Educational Research Journal, 52(1). https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214563063